Timothy E. Heron

When the Best is not Good Enough An Examination of Best Practice

The term best practice is widely used by professionals in special education. However, various definitions, conceptualizations, and applications of the term presently exist. This article reviews and describes how best practice has been used and suggests that the term is misleading unless measurable criteria have been systematically applied. A single operational definition is proposed that focuses on (a) the theoretical basis for a procedure, (b) the integrity of the research design and the extent of systematic replication, (c) consensus with existing literature, (d) process and product outcomes, and (e) evidence of social validity. Implications for practitioners, researchers, and teacher educators are addressed.

A Comparison of Active Student Response and On-Task Instruction on the Acquisition and Maintenance of Health Facts by Fourth Grade Special Education Students

An alternating treatments design was used to compare the effects of active student response (ASR) and on-task (OT) instruction on the acquisition and maintenance of health facts during small-group lessons. Five students with learning difficulties (4 students identified as developmentally handicapped and 1 student identified as learning disabled) participated in daily instruction on weekly sets of 20 unknown health facts (10 facts assigned to the ASR condition and 10 to the OT condition). During ASR instruction, the teacher modeled the correct response to a health question that was presented visually on a health fact card, and the students immediately repeated the correct response in unison three times. During OT instruction, students attended visually to the health fact card as the teacher modeled the correct response. All 5 students made more correct responses on end-of-day tests on health facts taught with ASR instruction than they did on health facts taught with OT instruction. ASR instruction also produced consistently superior results on maintenance tests administered 2 weeks after instruction.

Effects of Self-Monitoring on the On-Task Behavior and Written Language Performance of Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities

The present study was conducted to determine the effects of self-monitoring and a changing criterion with public posting phase on student on-task behavior and written language performance. Four elementary school boys participated and were enrolled in an urban-based, elementary-level resource room for students with learning disabilities. Self-monitoring procedures for on-task behavior included the students listening to a tone recorded at 60-s intervals and responding to the question, “Am I on-task?” Written language performance involved the students writing for a 10-min. session and counting and graphing the number of words written. During baseline conditions, student on-task behavior and written language performance were collected. During the self-monitoring conditions, the students monitored their on-task behavior and written language performance simultaneously. In the changing criterion with public posting condition, the students received their goal for the days session prior to writing, wrote, and recorded whether they met their goal. While the results show a functional relationship between self-monitoring and on-task behavior, the data for the relationship between self-monitoring and written language performance were less compelling. A greater increase occurred when the changing criterion with public posting condition was introduced. Results suggest that self-monitoring changed on-task behavior; however, further research needs to be conducted to determine the conditions that would produce comparable effects for written language performance. Several implications for students and teachers and parent training were discussed.

Peer Tutoring Systems: Applications in Classroom and Specialized Environments

ABSTRACT Peer-mediated approaches have been used for years to improve the academic behaviors of students, especially those with disabilities. The most systematized and well researched of the peer-mediated approaches relates to peer tutoring systems, which include specific elements of training, implementation, and evaluation. The purpose of this article is to distinguish peer tutoring systems from incidental tutoring approaches, document the application of peer tutoring within academic and specialized areas (e.g., music or horticulture), show representative examplars of data-based studies that provide varied applications from preschool to secondary levels across a range of students with and without disabilities, suggest adaptations to the system, and offer recommendations for future research.

Tutor Huddle: Key Element in a Classwide Peer Tutoring System

Providing sufficient individualized instruction to every student in the class is a constant challenge to an elementary school teacher. Computer-assisted instruction (Magidson 1978), programmed texts (Kneller & Hackbarth 1977), and selfpaced instruction (Keller 1968) are all effective methods of individualizing instruction. Two factors that have limited the implementation of these approaches in the early grades are the cost of purchasing the hardware and the fact that students must possess prerequisite skills in order to use these learning systems. In addition, none of these approaches can give the student the many levels of prompting, personalized feedback, and praise that are so important during the beginning stages of

The Effects of Self-Correction Versus Traditional Spelling on the Spelling Performance and Maintenance of Third Grade Students

We examined the effect of self-correction versus a traditional spelling approach on the acquisition and maintenance of written spelling of elementary school students enrolled in third grade. Six students, who were at risk for spelling failure, served as subjects. During self-correction, students used a form with five columns that contained correct pre-written models of spelling words. After reviewing the word list, students folded back the first column, which contained the words. Then, they listened to their spelling list on individual cassette players and spelled each word in turn in the subsequent columns of the form. Students checked their spelling responses by unfolding the first column and matching their responses to the sample. Each correct spelling response was marked with a “C” incorrect spellings were fixed by writing the correct orthography above the word. During traditional spelling, students wrote each spelling word five times, using a pre-written model as a guide. Results showed a functional relationship between self-correction and improved spelling performance. Five of the six maintained a higher number of posttests words on maintenance probes. All students preferred the self-correction method over the traditional spelling method.

Applications of Tutoring Systems in Specialized Subject Areas An Analysis of Skills, Methodologies, and Results

Tutoring is an effective, quick, and easily implemented procedure to individualize instruction across dyads, small groups, or large groups. Most tutoring applications have occurred in school settings using classwide, cross-age, or one-to-one configurations, with traditional academic subjects (e.g., reading, math, spelling) serving as the targeted skills. Limited home-based applications have also been reported, with the focus remaining essentially within an academic context. This article reviews how tutoring systems have been applied across specialized subject areas (e.g., music, horticulture, health and safety, social interactions). The authors summarize research findings, provide an analysis of skills learned within each tutoring system, identify the respective methodologies, and report relevant findings. Implications and suggestions for future research efforts are given.

Effects of self-correction on the spelling performance of junior high students with learning disabilities

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of Self-Correction and Traditional spelling on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of spelling words with five junior high school students with learning disabilities. During Traditional spelling students received a weekly list of 20 unknown words. Daily 20-minute assignments with these words varied among writing them, arranging them in alphabetical order, dividing the words into syllables, and using a dictionary to locate word meaning. Students were tested on the 20 words at the end of the week. During Self-Correction, students received 20 words on a 5-column sheet of paper. Columns were arranged so that stimulus words could be hidden by folding the paper back, and later exposed after the teacher dictated and the student wrote the words. Students used proofreading marks to self-correct. Sessions lasted 20 minutes, and weekly, delayed, and generalized assessments were conducted. Results indicated that for all five students the Self-Correction procedure was more effective for word acquisition than Traditional spelling. Also, for four of the five students, maintenance of words was higher under Self-Correction. Generalization occurred for three students. Finally, measures of social validity indicated that the students preferred Self-Correction over Traditional spelling, although two teachers in regular classrooms did not notice significant changes in the overall spelling performance for the students. Implications for the classroom practitioner are discussed.

Effects of Self-Correction on the Acquisition, Maintenance, and Generalization of the Written Spelling of Elementary School Children

We examined the effect of self-correction on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of written spelling of elementary school students attending an after-school clinic. Six students registered for remedial tutoring participated. During self-correction, students initially learned four proofreading marks and a procedure for using them that were subsequently applied as the students compared their spelling to a model. Results showed a functional effect between self-correction and improved student performance on target words. Using the self-correction procedure, the students spelled at least 98% of the target words accurately, maintained at least 85% of the correctly spelled words, and generalized at least 70% of the words at home, in context, and with word variations. Questionnaires administered to the students, their parents, and teachers indicated that students preferred self-correction. Parents noticed academic improvements in their childs spelling performance as well as positive changes in attitude toward school. Most teachers did not notice changes in spelling performance or attitude.

Gaining Perspective with the Educational Consultation Research Base Ecological Considerations and Further Recommendations

The purpose of this article is to examine the efficacy of educational consultation across three categories of studies: field-based survey research, outcome studies, and process investigations. Also, an attempt is made to broaden the focus of research studies by suggesting that a full range of ecological factors be included in the analysis. The paper concludes with several specific recommendations to guide future investigations.