Timothy J. Silverman

Thermal and Electrical Effects of Partial Shade in Monolithic Thin-Film Photovoltaic Modules

Photovoltaic cells can be damaged by reverse bias stress, which arises during service when a monolithically integrated thin-film module is partially shaded. We introduce a model for describing a modules internal thermal and electrical state, which cannot normally be measured. Using this model and experimental measurements, we present several results with relevance for reliability testing and module engineering: Modules with a small breakdown voltage experience less stress than those with a large breakdown voltage, with some exceptions for modules having light-enhanced reverse breakdown. Masks leaving a small part of the masked cells illuminated can lead to very high temperature and current density compared to masks covering entire cells.

Outdoor performance of a thin-film gallium-arsenide photovoltaic module

We deployed a 855 cm2 thin-film, single-junction gallium arsenide (GaAs) photovoltaic (PV) module outdoors. Due to its fundamentally different cell technology compared to silicon (Si), the module responds differently to outdoor conditions. On average during the test, the GaAs module produced more power when its temperature was higher. We show that its maximum-power temperature coefficient, while actually negative, is several times smaller in magnitude than that of a Si module used for comparison. The positive correlation of power with temperature in GaAs is due to temperature-correlated changes in the incident spectrum. We show that a simple correction based on precipitable water vapor (PWV) brings the photocurrent temperature coefficient into agreement with that measured by other methods and predicted by theory. The low operating temperature and small temperature coefficient of GaAs give it an energy production advantage in warm weather.

Optics-Based Approach to Thermal Management of Photovoltaics: Selective-Spectral and Radiative Cooling

For commercial one-sun solar modules, up to 80% of the incoming sunlight may be dissipated as heat, potentially raising the temperature 20–30 °C higher than the ambient. In the long term, extreme self-heating erodes efficiency and shortens lifetime, thereby dramatically reducing the total energy output. Therefore, it is critically important to develop effective and practical (and preferably passive) cooling methods to reduce operating temperature of photovoltaic (PV) modules. In this paper, we explore two fundamental (but often overlooked) origins of PV self-heating, namely, sub-bandgap absorption and imperfect thermal radiation. The analysis suggests that we redesign the optical properties of the solar module to eliminate parasitic absorption (selective-spectral cooling) and enhance thermal emission (radiative cooling). Comprehensive opto-electro-thermal simulation shows that the proposed techniques would cool one-sun terrestrial solar modules up to 10 °C. This self-cooling would substantially extend the lifetime for solar modules, with corresponding increase in energy yields and reduced levelized cost of electricity.

Electrical bias as an alternate method for reproducible measurement of copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) photovoltaic modules

Light-to-dark metastable changes in thin-film photovoltaic (PV) modules can introduce uncertainty when measuring module performance on indoor flash testing equipment. This study describes a method to stabilize module performance through forward-bias current injection rather than light exposure. Measurements of five pairs of thin-film copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) PV modules indicate that forward-bias exposure maintained the PV modules at a stable condition (within 1%) while the unbiased modules degraded in performance by up to 12%. It was also found that modules exposed to forward bias exhibited stable performance within about 3% of their long-term outdoor exposed performance. This carrier-injection method provides a way to reduce uncertainty arising from fast transients in thin-film module performance between the time a module is removed from light exposure and when it is measured indoors, effectively simulating continuous light exposure by injecting minority carriers that behave much as photocarriers do. This investigation also provides insight into the initial light-induced transients of thin-film modules upon outdoor deployment.

CPV Cell Infant Mortality Study

Six hundred and fifty CPV cells were characterized before packaging and then after a four‐hour concentrated on‐sun exposure. An observed infant mortality failure rate was reproduced and attributed to epoxy die‐attach voiding at the corners of the cells. These voids increase the local thermal resistance allowing thermal runaway to occur under normal operating conditions in otherwise defect‐free cells. FEM simulations and experiments support this hypothesis. X‐ray transmission imaging of the affected assemblies was found incapable of detecting all suspect voids and therefore cannot be considered a reliable screening technique in the case of epoxy die‐attach.

A physics-based compact model for CIGS and CdTe solar cells: From voltage-dependent carrier collection to light-enhanced reverse breakdown

In this paper, we develop a physics-based compact model for CIGS and CdTe heterojunction solar cells that attributes the failure of superposition to voltage-dependent carrier collection in the absorber layer, and interprets light-enhanced reverse breakdown as a consequence of tunneling-assisted Poole-Frenkel conduction. The temperature dependence of the model is validated against both simulation and experimental data for the entire range of bias conditions. The model can be used to characterize device parameters, optimize new designs, and most importantly, predict performance and reliability of solar panels including the effects of self-heating and reverse breakdown due to partial-shading degradation.

Partial shade stress test for thin-film photovoltaic modules

Partial shade of monolithic thin-film PV modules can cause reverse-bias conditions leading to permanent damage. In this work, we introduce a partial shade stress test for thin-film PV modules that quantifies permanent performance loss. The test reproduces shading and loading conditions that may occur in the field. It accounts for reversible light-induced performance changes and for the effects of light-enhanced reverse breakdown. We simulated the test procedure using a computer model that predicts the local voltage, current and temperature stress resulting from partial shade. We also performed the test on three commercial module types. Each module type we tested suffered permanent damage during masked ash testing totaling < 2 s of light exposure. During the subsequent stress test these module types lost 4%{11% in Pmp due to widespread formation of new shunts. One module type showed a substantial worsening of the Pmp loss upon light stabilization, underscoring the importance of this practice for proper quantification of damage.

Metastable changes to the temperature coefficients of thin-film photovoltaic modules

Transient changes in the performance of thin-film modules with light exposure are a well-known and widely reported phenomenon. These changes are often the result of reversible metastabilities rather than irreversible changes. Here we consider how these metastable changes affect the temperature dependence of photovoltaic performance. We find that in CIGS modules exhibiting a metastable increase in performance with light exposure, the light exposure also induces an increase in the magnitude of the temperature coefficient. It is important to understand such changes when characterizing temperature coefficients and when analyzing the outdoor performance of newly installed modules.

Damage in Monolithic Thin-Film Photovoltaic Modules Due to Partial Shade

The typical configuration of monolithic thin-film photovoltaic modules makes it possible for partial shade to place one or more cells in such a module in reverse bias. Reverse bias operation leads to high voltage, current density, and power density conditions, which can act as driving forces for failure. We showed that a brief outdoor shadow event can cause a 7% permanent loss in power. We applied an indoor partial shade durability test that moves beyond the standard hot spot endurance test by using more realistic mask and bias conditions and by carefully quantifying the permanent change in performance due to the stress. With the addition of a pass criterion based on change in maximum power, this procedure will soon be proposed as a part of the module-type qualification test. All six commercial copper indium gallium diselenide and cadmium telluride modules we tested experienced permanent damage due to the indoor partial shade test, ranging from 4% to 14% loss in maximum power. We conclude by summarizing ways to mitigate partial shade stress at the cell, module, and system levels.

The Influence of PV Module Materials and Design on Solder Joint Thermal Fatigue Durability

Finite element model (FEM) simulations have been performed to elucidate the effect of flat plate photovoltaic (PV) module materials and design on PbSn eutectic solder joint thermal fatigue durability. The statistical method of Latin Hypercube sampling was employed to investigate the sensitivity of simulated damage to each input variable. Variables of laminate material properties and their thicknesses were investigated. Using analysis of variance, we determined that the rate of solder fatigue was most sensitive to solder layer thickness, with copper ribbon and silicon thickness being the next two most sensitive variables. By simulating both accelerated thermal cycles (ATCs) and PV cell temperature histories through two characteristic days of service, we determined that the acceleration factor between the ATC and outdoor service was independent of the variables sampled in this study. This result implies that an ATC test will represent a similar time of outdoor exposure for a wide range of module designs. This is an encouraging result for the standard ATC that must be universally applied across all modules.