Timothy J. Wright

Video Games as a Means to Reduce Age-Related Cognitive Decline: Attitudes, Compliance, and Effectiveness

Recent research has demonstrated broad benefits of video game play to perceptual and cognitive abilities. These broad improvements suggest that video game-based cognitive interventions may be ideal to combat the many perceptual and cognitive declines associated with advancing age. Furthermore, game interventions have the potential to induce higher rates of intervention compliance compared to other cognitive interventions as they are assumed to be inherently enjoyable and motivating. We explored these issues in an intervention that tested the ability of an action game and a “brain fitness” game to improve a variety of abilities. Cognitive abilities did not significantly improve, suggesting caution when recommending video game interventions as a means to reduce the effects of cognitive aging. However, the game expected to produce the largest benefit based on previous literature (an action game) induced the lowest intervention compliance. We explain this low compliance by participants’ ratings of the action game as less enjoyable and by their prediction that training would have few meaningful benefits. Despite null cognitive results, data provide valuable insights into the types of video games older adults are willing to play and why.

An investigation of the validity of the virtual spatial navigation assessment

This correlational study investigated a new measure of environmental spatial ability (i.e., large scale spatial ability) called the virtual spatial navigation assessment (VSNA). In the VSNA, participants must find a set of gems in a virtual 3D environment using a first person avatar on a computer. The VSNA runs in a web browser and automatically collects the time taken to find each gem. The time taken to collect gems in the VSNA was significantly correlated to three other spatial ability measures, math standardized test scores, and choice to be in a STEM (science, technology, engineering, or math) career. These findings support the validity of the VSNA as a measure of environmental spatial ability. Finally, self-report video game experience was also significantly correlated to the VSNA suggesting that video game may improve environmental spatial ability. Recommendations are made for how the VSNA can be used to help guide individuals toward STEM career paths and identify weaknesses that might be addressed with large scale spatial navigation training.

Characterizing the time course and nature of attentional disengagement effects.

Visual features of fixated but irrelevant items contribute to both how long overt attention dwells at a location and to decisions regarding the location of subsequent attention shifts (Boot & Brockmole, 2010; Brockmole & Boot, 2009). Fixated but irrelevant search items that share the color of the search target delay the deployment of attention. Furthermore, eye movements are biased to distractors that share the color of the currently fixated item. We present a series of experiments that examined these effects in depth. Experiment 1 explored the time course of disengagement effects. Experiments 2 and 3 explored the generalizability of disengagement effects by testing whether they could be observed when participants searched for targets defined by form instead of color. Finally, Experiment 4 validated the disengagement paradigm as a measure of disengagement and ruled out alternative explanations for slowed saccadic reaction times. Results confirm and extend our understanding of the influence of features within the focus of attention on when and where attention will shift next.

Experienced drivers are quicker to achieve situation awareness than inexperienced drivers in situations of transfer of control within a Level 3 autonomous environment

Previous researchers examining transfers of control from semi-autonomous to manual driving have found that younger drivers engaged in a secondary task while in automated mode need at least 8 seconds to achieve the same level of situation awareness as drivers always in control of their vehicle (Samuel et al., 2016). It is likely that middle-age drivers, with their increased driving experience would require less time. To test this hypothesis, middle-age drivers participated in a driving simulator experiment where they were asked to either drive manually (control) or with a simulated autonomous system (experimental conditions). While in automated mode, drivers either received an alert 4s, 6s, 8s, or 12s prior to the presence of a latent hazard. The proportion of latent hazards anticipated was examined. The results were consistent with the hypothesis that middle-age drivers were better at anticipating hazards overall and were faster to achieve appropriate situation awareness associated with manual driving than younger drivers.

Pupillary response predicts multiple object tracking load, error rate, and conscientiousness, but not inattentional blindness

Research on inattentional blindness (IB) has uncovered few individual difference measures that predict failures to detect an unexpected event. Notably, no clear relationship exists between primary task performance and IB. This is perplexing as better task performance is typically associated with increased effort and should result in fewer spare resources to process the unexpected event. We utilized a psychophysiological measure of effort (pupillary response) to explore whether differences in effort devoted to the primary task (multiple object tracking) are related to IB. Pupillary response was sensitive to tracking load and differences in primary task error rates. Furthermore, pupillary response was a better predictor of conscientiousness than primary task errors; errors were uncorrelated with conscientiousness. Despite being sensitive to task load, individual differences in performance and conscientiousness, pupillary response did not distinguish between those who noticed the unexpected event and those who did not. Results provide converging evidence that effort and primary task engagement may be unrelated to IB.

The costs (or benefits) associated with attended objects do little to influence inattentional blindness

We sometimes fail to notice unexpected objects or events when our attention is directed elsewhere, a phenomenon called inattentional blindness. We explored whether unexpected objects that shared the color of consequential objects would be noticed more often. In three pre-registered experiments, participants played a custom video game in which they avoided both low- and high-cost missiles (Experiment 1 and 2) or tried to hit rewarding missiles while avoiding costly ones (Experiment 3). After participants had played the game for about 8min, an unexpected object moved across the screen. Although participants selectively avoided more costly missiles when playing, they were no more likely to notice an unexpected object when its color was associated with greater costs. Apparently, people are no more likely to notice unexpected objects that are associated with negative consequences. Future research should examine whether objects that are themselves consequential are noticed more frequently.

Effects of a Change in Environment on the Minimum Time to Situation Awareness in Transfer of Control Scenarios

From previous experiments, it is known that control must be transferred to the driver in a Level 3 vehicle at least 8 s before the driver passes a latent hazard for the driver to be as aware of the latent hazard as the driver is when glancing continuously on the forward roadway. In these experiments, the driving environment remained consistent throughout the time the automated driving suite (ADS) was engaged, and immediately after control was transferred to the driver. Considering that drivers expect different categories of hazards in different driving environments, a transition to a different environment while the ADS is engaged may impair a driver’s ability to both achieve situation awareness and successfully mitigate hazards. The current experiment examined if 8 s was enough time for drivers to achieve situation awareness and appropriately mitigate hazards when the roadway environment changes while the driver is engaged in a secondary activity that takes his or her eyes away from the forward roadway. Drivers’ eye movements and vehicle metrics were recorded as they completed one of three conditions in a driving simulator: an automation condition where the driving environment remained consistent throughout; an automation condition that contained some transitions to a new environment while the driver engaged the ADS; and a manual driving condition that also contained the same transitions as the latter automation condition. Results suggest that even 8 s is not enough time for drivers to achieve situation awareness and mitigate hazards when the hazards are unexpected.

Effects of Alert Cue Specificity on Situation Awareness in Transfer of Control in Level 3 Automation

Drivers in a Level 3 automation environment typically need at least 8 s following a manual takeover request to achieve appropriate levels of situation awareness. Studies that have derived this time estimate use general audio alerts that suggest a transfer of control from the automation to the driver might be required. The current experiment examined if improvements in younger drivers’ situation awareness might be observed in as little as 4 s before a latent hazard might materialize and a transfer of control occurs if more specific audio alerts are used. Younger drivers either drove manually with no cue or in one of four automation conditions: (a) a general cue condition, (b) a condition that described the risky features of the roadway and the location of those features, (c) a condition that contained information about the actual identity of the threat and the required behavior, and (d) a combination cue condition (both environment and threat cue). Eye movements were recorded as drivers completed six scenarios in a simulated automated driving experiment. The results showed that audio cues that contained information about risky roadway features increased the detection of latent hazards by almost 40% compared with when a general cue or a threat cue was used. Performance with the combined cue was no better than performance with the environment cue. The environment cue gives drivers the critical seconds needed to mitigate a potential crash. Results are informative about which types of alerts to use to inform drivers of upcoming hazards.

Age Effects on Inattentional Blindness: Implications for Driving

We may fail to notice things in our environment because our attention is directed somewhere else, a phenomenon called inattentional blindness. Our susceptibility to inattentional blindness increases as we age. We explored three potential moderators of the age and inattentional blindness relationship: (1) the spatial proximity of the unexpected object to our focus of attention; (2) the match between the features of the unexpected object and those we have prioritized—our attention set; and (3) the salience of the unexpected object. Using a large sample of participants, we found no evidence that any of these moderate the effect that age has on inattentional blindness; the effect of age is robust. We discuss the implications for older drivers.

An Initial Review of the Instructional and Operational Variability Among Automated Systems in Passenger Vehicles

As automotive manufacturers are increasing the amount of technology and automation available in vehicles, drivers must increase their understanding of how to properly use these technologies before the full safety benefits can be realized. Unfortunately, recent work has suggested that even drivers with the most advanced vehicles often have little understanding of the available technology (McDonald et al., 2017). Yet, this poor understanding of advanced driver assistance systems cannot entirely be blamed on the driver; other factors, such as the availability and quality of instructional sources are also at play (e.g., Abraham et al., 2017). Facilitating access to safety-critical information and standardizing instructional and operational components are two potential routes to increase drivers’ knowledge. However, target areas must be identified. The current study reviewed the degree to which automated systems in passenger vehicles and related information varied among those moderately-priced and luxury models marketed and sold in the United States. Information regarding ten existing longitudinal (e.g., adaptive cruise control) and ten lateral control automated systems (i.e., those that provide sustained lateral control and lane centering) were gathered from OEM websites and operator manuals. Information was coded and synthesized, including the name of the system, the stated functionality, operation, and system constraints as well as the source of the information. Results of this exercise suggest a number of target areas for researchers, OEMs and policy makers to consider in attempts to increase accessibility, knowledge, and ultimately safe usage of these technologies. First, a high degree of variability was observed even among basic characteristics of these technologies such as the system name. This was particularly an issue among luxury automated longitudinal control systems where every system had a fairly different name. While the activation methods were largely consistent across both lateral and longitudinal systems, the deactivation methods varied a great deal both in the allowance of alternative methods and the type of method (if allowed). Moreover, all the systems provided some form of visual feedback to the driver, but this feedback still varied greatly, particularly among lateral systems, in the location of the feedback and the modality that supplemental feedback was presented. System limits for both automated lateral and longitudinal systems were also elucidated. The majority of OEMs reported five types of system limits: curves, stopped vehicles, weather, small obstacles (e.g., pedestrians, bicyclists), and hills. Similar to the lateral control systems, two OEMs also reported difficulty handling an occupied adjacent lane. These limits were elucidated primarily through the operator manual for each respective model. While some information concerning these limits was available on the website, generally information gathered at this location was restricted. This limited accessibility to information is likely leading to individuals not getting this information, resulting in the poor understanding of these systems observed among owners and even dealers of this technology (Abraham et al., 2017; McDonald et al., 2017). When these individuals do take the time to read the operator manual and do get this information, the variability across systems likely limits their understanding and building of a mental model that supports safe usage over time as they encounter other similar systems.