Timothy Wangler

Leaching of Biocides from Façades under Natural Weather Conditions

Biocides are included in organic building façade coatings as protection against biological attack by algae and fungi but have the potential to enter the environment via leaching into runoff from wind driven rain. The following field study correlates wind driven rain to runoff and measured the release of several commonly used organic biocides (terbutryn, Irgarol 1051, diuron, isoproturon, OIT, DCOIT) in organic façade coatings from four coating systems. During one year of exposure of a west oriented model house façade in the Zurich, Switzerland area, an average of 62.7 L/m(2), or 6.3% of annual precipitation came off the four façade panels installed as runoff. The ISO method for calculating wind driven rain loads is adapted to predict runoff and can be used in the calculation of emissions in the field. Biocide concentrations tend to be higher in the early lifetime of the coatings and then reach fairly consistent levels later, generally ranging on the order of mg/L or hundreds of μg/L. On the basis of the amount remaining in the film after exposure, the occurrence of transformation products, and the calculated amounts in the leachate, degradation plays a significant role in the overall mass balance.

Desorption of biocides from renders modified with acrylate and silicone

Biocides are used in the building industry to prevent algal, bacterial and fungal growth on polymericrenders and thus to protect buildings. However, these biocides are leached into the environment. To better understand this leaching, the sorption/desorption of biocides in polymeric renders was assessed. In this study the desorption constants of cybutryn, carbendazim, iodocarb, isoproturon, diuron, dichloro-N-octylisothiazolinone and tebuconazole towards acrylate and silicone based renders were assessed at different pH values. At pH 9.5 (porewater) the constants for an acrylate based render varied between 8 (isoproturon) and 9634 (iodocarb) and 3750 (dichloro-N-octylisothiazolinone), respectively. The values changed drastically with pH value. The results for the silicone based renders were in a similar range and usually the compounds with high sorption constants for one polymer also had high values for the other polymer. Comparison of the octanol water partitioning constants (Kow) with the render/water partitioning constants (Kd) revealed similarities, but no strong correlation. Adding higher amounts of polymer to the render material changed the equilibria for dichloro-N-octylisothiazolinone, tebuconazole, cybutryn, carbendazim but not for isoproturon and diuron.

CONTROLLING STRESS FROM SWELLING CLAY

Many sedimentary rocks contain clays that swell on exposure to moisture, producing stresses from differential strain. Wendler and Snethlage showed that the swelling can be reduced by treatment with α−ω diamino alkanes. In this paper, we present results showing that mixtures of such molecules are more effective than any single molecule, and that better results are obtained by applying smaller molecules before the larger ones.

On-site monitoring for better selection of stone repairs: a case study

Weathering of clay-bearing sandstones does not only depend on material properties but also on the environmental conditions they are exposed to. The same is true for repaired stones, in which the compatibility of the repair mortar should be studied not only in terms of material properties, but also in terms of the climatic conditions it will be subjected, in order to maximize this compatibility. This paper proposes a methodology to quantify the thermal and hygric stresses in clay-bearing sandstones and their repair, based on the measurement of temperature and relative humidity at the surface and at several depths in a repaired and a non-repaired stone, as well as wind-driven rain and absorbed water. This is illustrated by a case study in an historical building. The data are used to quantify the stresses in the materials and to propose possible degradation mechanisms.

Controlling Swelling of Portland Brownstone

Many clay-bearing sedimentary stones such as Portland Brownstone will swell when exposed to water, and this can generate damaging stresses as differential strains evolve during a wetting cycle. Current swelling inhibitors, consisting of α,ω-diaminoalkanes, can reduce swelling in Portland Brownstone up to 50%. In this study, through X-ray diffraction and swelling strain experiments, we demonstrate that the α,ω-diaminoalkanes inhibit swelling by substituting for interlayer cations and partially hydrophobicizing the interlayer, then rehydrating on subsequent wetting cycles. We also introduce the copper (II) ethylenediamine complex as a potential treatment for swelling inhibition.

The Decay of the Historical Site of Malecon in Havana, Cuba: Salt Crystallization Damage at Repair Interfaces

The buildings of the Malecon, the historical section of Havana along the coastline, suffer accelerated degradation due to the aggressive environment. The primary damage mechanism at play is the crystallization of sodium chloride at repair mortar interfaces, as shown in petrographic and SEM analysis. This preferential precipitation leads to crystallization pressures that reduce the adherence of the lime based mortars from the substrate. Environmental monitoring shows that the daily relative humidity fluctuates around the deliquescence point of sodium chloride, exacerbating the problem through continual cycles of dissolution and recrystallization. The potential for an alternative repair material such as limestone calcined clay cement based mortar is discussed.

Potentials of Steel Fibres for Mesh Mould Elements

Mesh Mould is a digital fabrication technique developed at ETH Zurich in which the reinforcement and formwork production are unified in a robotically controlled system. An industrial robot fabricates a dense, three-dimensional, double-sided, welded reinforcement mesh that is infilled with a special concrete mix that achieves sufficient compaction without flowing out the mesh, which acts as porous formwork. Since the project started in 2012, the actual generation of robot end-effector is capable of bending and welding conventional steel reinforcement of 6 and 4.5 mm in diameter. Due to the process, the load-bearing capacity of these Mesh Mould elements is not equal in both directions due to geometrical restrictions in the end-effector. This study aims to increase the load-bearing capacity in the weaker direction by using steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC), which orients the fibres during flowing in this direction and in addition prevents the leakage of the concrete by enhancing jamming. A total of 10 specimens with 540 × 210 × 80 mm dimensions were tested in a displacement controlled symmetric four-point bending test. By combining SFRC with a mesh, the bending strength increased significantly with respect to the samples without fibres. The capacity is higher than the capacity of the individual parts, which are evaluated in separate material tests. Nonetheless, the bending strength in this study was limited by the weld strength, which was considerably lower than the one achieved by the robot. Higher weld strength would lead to better performance than in this first study, which is a part of an ongoing research effort.

Challenges of Real-Scale Production with Smart Dynamic Casting

Digital fabrication with concrete has for more than a decade been of high interest in both research institutions and industries. A particular interest has been set on Contour Crafting, a type of layered extrusion with concrete, which in recent years has been used for the fabrication of single and multi-story buildings. However, these have been done with little proof of systematic integration of reinforcement, which until now still requires tedious post processing to obtain the structural capabilities required.

An analytical approach to the characterization of swelling in clay-bearing stone

Clay minerals that swell when exposed to water play an important role in the deterioration of buildings and monuments, as well as in a number of civil engineering problems. A novel method for the in situ determination of the key properties governing these phenomena has been recently proposed by Scherer and Gonzalez [Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 390 (2005) p.51]. A comprehensive relation between the experimental observations and the material properties could however not be established up to now. The present study develops an analytical model in which the interplay between geometrical factors and material properties, as well as initial and boundary conditions is accounted for. An extensive parametric study reveals that the discrepancies between the observations and the modelling approach by Scherer and Gonzalez is due to initial and boundary conditions on the one hand and the dispersion of the moisture front on the other hand. Based on the developed model, recommendations for performing in situ tests are formulated and conditions for the applicability of the more simplified modelling strategy by Scherer and Gonzalez are derived. A comparison with experimental data supports these conclusions.