Tine Kil

Parental leave uptake among migrant and native mothers: Can precarious employment trajectories account for the difference?

Family policies such as parental leave schemes increasingly support the work–family balance. Low maternal employment in migrant populations raises questions on family policy uptake among mothers of migrant origin. This study documents differences in parental leave uptake between native and migrant mothers of different origin groups and generations, and assesses the extent to which precarious employment trajectories can account for these differentials. Using longitudinal data from Belgian social security registers, mixed-effects logit models of leave uptake, full-time or part-time leave uptake and the labour market position following leave are estimated for 10,976 mothers who entered parenthood between 2004 and 2010. Results indicate that uptake of parental leave is lower among mothers of migrant origin, since they fail to meet the eligibility criteria as a result of being overrepresented in unstable labour market positions. Whereas differential leave uptake can be accounted for by non-universal eligibility and precarious labour market trajectories, migrant-native differentials in part-time uptake and labour market positions following leave persist when controlling for pre-birth employment characteristics. The differential pattern of leave uptake among first-generation migrant women, in particular, is not explained by pre-birth employment characteristics, as they remain overrepresented in full-time leave, and first-generation mothers of non-European origin more frequently retreat from the labour force following leave. We conclude that difficult access to stable employment and non-universal eligibility are major factors explaining migrant-native differentials in parental leave use. As such, Belgian parental leave policies perpetuate labour market disadvantages by limiting support for work–family reconciliation to those already established in the labour force.

Gender inequality in the division of housework over the life course: a European comparative perspective

Most Western European post-war welfare states are developed on the basic assumptions of the male breadwinner/female carer model that assumes a gendered division of paid and domestic work (Pascall & Lewis, 2004). In recent decades various societal institutions made a shift from the male breadwinner model towards the gender equity model. Gender equity means that gender is not a determinant of who is responsible for carrying out paid work, housework or childcare in a household (McDonald, 2000b). The shift has witnessed different speeds in different institutions. Gender inequity has largely disappeared from institutions such as education and employment. Over the last 50 years, female participation in higher education and the labour market significantly increased and the distribution of paid work between partners became more equal on average (Crompton, 1999). This contrasts to institutions related to family and parenting that experienced a much slower adjustment (McDonald, 2000a). The more equal distribution of paid work is partly offset by a more equal distribution of housework and childcare (Altintas, 2009; Lachance-Grzela & Bouchard, 2010). Goldscheider suggests that the revolution towards gender equality runs in two stages (Goldscheider, 2000; Goldscheider, Olah, & Puur, 2010). The first part of the gender revolution in which women enter the public sphere of education, employment and politics has been largely accomplished (Bernhardt, Noack, & Lyngstad, 2008). The second part of the revolution in which men join the private sphere and take up their part of the responsibility for housework and childcare lags behind. This incompatibility between the public and private life leads to a negative pressure on fertility and general family stability.

Constitution de la famille et activité des mères. Différences selon le niveau d’éducation en Europe

Despite the rise in maternal employment in Europe between 1970 and the 2000s, women?s labour market positions continue to depend much more strongly on family formation than those of men. The available literature on educational gradients in maternal employment is largely based on cross-sectional comparisons. This study is among the first to decompose educational differences in maternal employment into differences prior to motherhood and differential effects of childbearing on employment. Drawing on longitudinal microdata (Generations and Gender Survey) for France, the Netherlands, and Hungary, participation in the labour force is studied using mixed effects logit models. In addition we distinguish part-time and full-time work. In line with the available literature, clear positive educational gradients in maternal employment are found, largely reflecting positive educational differentials already existing before family formation. This finding is related to the fact that highly educated women typically aim to establish a career before starting a family, but also have better labour market opportunities in general. Temporary drops in labour force participation are larger after a first birth among highly educated women. Part-time working of mothers is less strongly determined by employment before the first birth, and its frequency increases with educational level.