Tino Töpper

Semiconductor disk laser at 2.05 μm wavelength with <100 kHz linewidth at 1 W output power

We report on an optically pumped single-mode GaSb-based semiconductor disk laser (SDL) emitting at 2.05 μm at an output power of 960 mW (1100 mW) with a side-mode suppression of better than 30 dB (20 dB). A linewidth of 60 kHz (sampling time: 100 μs) was measured at an output power of 960 mW. This improvement in output power over previous reports, which was achieved via a careful design of the SDL cavity paying close attention to the spatial overlap between cavity mode and pump spot, makes this class of SDL particularly attractive for remote sensing and optical free-space communication.

Electro-optically cavity dumped 2 μm semiconductor disk laser emitting 3 ns pulses of 30 W peak power

A 2 μm electro-optically cavity-dumped semiconductor disk laser (SDL) with a pulse full width at half maximum of 3 ns, a pulse peak power of 30 W, and repetition rates adjustable between 87 kHz and 1 MHz is reported. For ns-pulse cavity dumping the SDL was set up with a 35-cm long cavity into which an intra-cavity Brewster-angled polarizer prism and a Pockels cell for rotation of the linear polarization were inserted. By means of internal total reflection in the birefringent polarizer, pulses are coupled out of the cavity sideways. This variant of ns-pulse 2-μm SDL is well suited for applications such as high-precision light detection and ranging or ns-pulse laser materials processing after further power amplification.

Thin Film Formation and Morphology of Electrosprayed Polydimethylsiloxane.

Low-voltage dielectric actuators (DEAs) can be fabricated using submicrometer-thin polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) films. The two established techniques, namely spin coating and molecular beam deposition, however, are inappropriate to produce multistack DEAs in an efficient way. Therefore, we propose an alternative deposition technique, i.e., the alternating current electrospray deposition (ACESD) of 5 vol % PDMS in ethyl acetate solution and subsequent ultraviolet light curing. Atomic force microscopy makes possible the three-dimensional analysis of cured droplet-like islands. These circular islands, prepared on 2 in. Si(100) wafers from four polymers with molecular masses between 800 and 62,700 g/mol, reveal a characteristic morphology with an increasing height-to-diameter ratio. Using the 6000 g/mol polymer for ACESD, the film morphology evolution was tracked by applying conventional optical microscopy and spectroscopic ellipsometry. When the deposition was terminated after 13 s, circular islands with a mean height of 30 nm were found, while terminating the deposition after about 155 s led to a confluent layer with a mean height of 91 ± 10 nm. Potential electrostatic interactions between the droplets could not be identified through the analysis of spatial island distribution. Nevertheless, ACESD is a budget-priced and competitive deposition technique that can be employed to fabricate submicrometer-thin PDMS films with true nanometer roughness.

Tailoring the mass distribution and functional group density of dimethylsiloxane-based films by thermal evaporation

The tailoring of molecular weight distribution and the functional group density of vinyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) by molecular beam deposition is demonstrated herein. Thermally evaporated PDMS and its residue are characterized using gel permeation chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance. Thermal fragmentation of vinyl groups occurs for evaporation temperatures above 487 K (214 °C). At a background pressure of 10−6 mbar, the maximum molecular weight distribution is adjusted from (700 ± 100) g/mol to (6100 ± 100) g/mol with a polydispersity index of 1.06 ± 0.02. The content of vinyl-termination per repeating unit of PDMS is tailored from (2.8 ± 0.2)% to (5.6 ± 0.1)%. Molecular weights of vinyl-terminated PDMS evaporated at temperatures above 388 K (115 °C) correspond to those attributed to trimethyl-terminated PDMS. Side groups of linear PDMS dominate intermolecular interactions and vapor pressure.

High-power 2.0 µm semiconductor disk laser—Influence of lateral lasing

The influence of lateral lasing on the high-power performance of 2 µm GaSb-based optically pumped semiconductor disk laser (SDL) has been investigated. The maximum cw output power of the SDL exceeded 4.1 W at 20 °C heat sink temperature. The occurrence of lateral lasing was observed by recording the emission spectrum and the emitted optical power in the in-plane direction of the SDL chip. We investigated the conditions for which lateral lasing occurs and demonstrate an effective means to suppress this unwanted phenomenon even for small SDL chip sizes comparable to the pump spot diameter.

Morphology and conductivity of Au films on polydimethylsiloxane using (3-mercaptopropyl)trimethoxysilane (MPTMS) as an adhesion promoter

Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA) are often referred to as artificial muscles due to their high specific continuous power, which is comparable to that of human skeletal muscles, and because of their millisecond response time. We intend to use nanometer-thin DEA as medical implant actuators and sensors to be operated at voltages as low as a few tens of volts. The conductivity of the electrode and the impact of its stiffness on the stacked structure are key to the design and operation of future devices. The stiffness of sputtered Au electrodes on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was characterized using AFM nanoindentation techniques. 2500 nanoindentations were performed on 10 x 10 μm2 regions at loads of 100 to 400 nN using a spherical tip with a radius of (522 ± 2) nm. Stiffness maps based on the Hertz model were calculated using the Nanosurf Flex-ANA system. The low adhesion of Au to PDMS has been reported in the literature and leads to the formation of Au-nanoclusters. The size of the nanoclusters was (25 ± 10) nm and can be explained by the low surface energy of PDMS leading to a Volmer-Weber growth mode. Therefore, we propose (3-mercaptopropyl)trimethoxysilane (MPTMS) as a molecular adhesive to promote the adhesion between the PDMS and Au electrode. A beneficial side effect of these self-assembling monolayers is the significant improvement of the electrode’s conductivity as determined by four-point probe measurements. Therefore, the application of a soft adhesive layer for building a dielectric elastomer actuator appears promising.

Micro- and nanostructured electro-active polymer actuators as smart muscles for incontinence treatment

Treatments of severe incontinence are currently based on purely mechanical systems that generally result in revision after three to five years. Our goal is to develop a prototype acting in a natural-analogue manner as artificial muscle, which is based on electro-active polymers. Dielectric actuators have outstanding performances including millisecond response times, mechanical strains of more than 10 % and power to mass densities similar to natural muscles. They basically consist of polymer films sandwiched between two compliant electrodes. The incompressible but elastic polymer film transduces the electrical energy into mechanical work according to the Maxwell pressure. Available polymer films are micrometers thick and voltages as large as kV are necessary to obtain 10 % strain. For medical implants, polymer films should be nanometer thin to realize actuation below 48 V. The metallic electrodes have to be stretchable to follow the strain of 10 % and remain conductive. Recent results on the stress/strain ...

Strain-dependent characterization of electrode and polymer network of electrically activated polymer actuators

Fecal incontinence describes the involuntary loss of bowel content and affects about 45 % of retirement home residents and overall more than 12 % of the adult population. Artificial sphincter implants for treating incontinence are currently based on mechanical systems with failure rates resulting in revision after three to five years. To overcome this drawback, artificial muscle sphincters based on bio-mimetic electro-active polymer (EAP) actuators are under development. Such implants require polymer films that are nanometer-thin, allowing actuation below 24 V, and electrodes that are stretchable, remaining conductive at strains of about 10 %. Strain-dependent resistivity measurements reveal an enhanced conductivity of 10 nm compared to 30 nm sputtered Au on silicone for strains higher than 5 %. Thus, strain-dependent morphology characterization with optical microscopy and atomic force microscopy could demonstrate these phenomena. Cantilever bending measurements are utilized to determine elastic/viscoelastic properties of the EAP films as well as their long-term actuation behavior. Controlling these properties enables the adjustment of growth parameters of nanometer-thin EAP actuators.

Biomimetic artificial sphincter muscles: status and challenges

Fecal incontinence is the involuntary loss of bowel content and affects more than 12% of the adult population, including 45% of retirement home residents. Severe fecal incontinence is often treated by implanting an artificial sphincter. Currently available implants, however, have long-term reoperation rates of 95% and definitive explantation rates of 40%. These statistics show that the implants fail to reproduce the capabilities of the natural sphincter and that the development of an adaptive, biologically inspired implant is required. Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEA) are being developed as artificial muscles for a biomimetic sphincter, due to their suitable response time, reaction forces, and energy consumption. However, at present the operation voltage of DEAs is too high for artificial muscles implanted in the human body. To reduce the operating voltage to tens of volts, we are using microfabrication to reduce the thickness of the elastomer layer to the nanometer level. Two microfabrication methods are being investigated: molecular beam deposition and electrospray deposition. This communication covers the current status and a perspective on the way forward, including the long-term prospects of constructing a smart sphincter from low-voltage sensors and actuators based on nanometer-thin dielectric elastomer films. As DEA can also provide sensory feedback, a biomimetic sphincter can be designed in accordance with the geometrical and mechanical parameters of its natural counterpart. The availability of such technology will enable fast pressure adaption comparable to the natural feedback mechanism, so that tissue atrophy and erosion can be avoided while maintaining continence du ring daily activities.

Leakage current, self-clearing and actuation efficiency of nanometer-thin, low-voltage dielectric elastomer transducers tailored by thermal evaporation

The low-voltage operation is the key challenge for dielectric elastomer transducers (DET) to enter the application field of medically approved actuators or sensors, such as artificial muscles or skin. Recently, it has been successfully shown that the reduction of the elastomer film thickness to a few hundred nanometers allows for the DEA operation reaching 6 % strain using only a few volts. Molecular beam deposition (MBD) enables us to tailor elastomer films with low defect level. Combined with in situ spectroscopic ellipsometry, MBD is a unique method to reliably deposit polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) thin films with true nanometer precision. The homogenous cross-linking of the PDMS film has been in situ realized by curing through ultraviolet (UV) radiation during deposition. We present the successful tailoring of the elastomer membrane’s elastic modulus down to a few hundreds of kPa by varying the UV-irradiation density. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) nano-indentation reveals homogeneously polymerized membranes. An adhesion layer of thiol-functionalized PDMS is applied to localize gold particles of the electrode layer to prevent diffusion into the nanometer-thin elastomer film and to reduce the leakage current. The understanding of leakage currents of such nanometer-thin elastomer films is crucial to preserve the unique actuation efficiency for DETs in low-voltage operation. Leakage currents are determined for a 200 nm-thin DEA as low as 10-3 A/m2 at applied electric fields of about 80 V/μm just before local breakdown events occur. Known as self-clearing, the vaporization of local defects enables to regain the functionality of the DET with subsequent reduced leakage current. AFM is utilized for the characterization of these DET low-voltage nanostructures regarding their vertical strain and actuation efficiency. A strain-to-voltage-squared (s/V2) ratio of 755 %/kV2 for a single-layer 500 nm-thin DEA is acquired - by far the highest reported (s/V2)-value for thin-film DEAs. A two-layer DET nanostructure is compared to a single layer DET with doubled elastomer film thickness to evaluate the repeatedly discussed stiffening electrode effect. This occurs when DET nanostructures are stacked above hundreds of times, the major challenge remaining to realize biomimetic DET with forces and compliance close to the natural muscles.