Tobias Plieninger

Effects of land-use history on size structure of holm oak stands in Spanish dehesas: implications for conservation and restoration

Dehesas , rangelands occupied by scattered oak trees and characterized by silvopastoral uses, cover about 3.1 million ha in south-western Spain. There is considerable debate about the long-term persistence of holm oak ( Quercus ilex ) populations in dehesas, since most stands are overaged and seedlings and saplings are sparse. The forest cycle has been disrupted in most dehesas. Regeneration has been inhibited since stands were opened for agriculture and grazing. Oak diameters from three land-use groups (young dehesa [YD], middle-aged dehesa [MD], and old dehesa [OD]) in Caceres Province, Spain, were compared. These groups differed in the age of the land-use system, i.e. time since the original Mediterranean forest was cleared. The dehesa systems were established about 80 (YD), 150 (MD) and 500 (OD) years ago. An analysis of 66 holm oak cross sections revealed a close correlation ( r 2 = 91.2%) between tree rings and diameters, so that diameter seems to be a reliable indicator of tree age. Nested analysis of variance showed significant variation in diameters between the land-use groups. There is generally a positive relationship between tree age and the age of agrosilvopastoral use of the dehesas. Sparse holm oaks in the dehesas are primarily remnants from the first forest cycle. Local differences in growth conditions (for example soil quality and tree density) contribute further significant diameter variation on a between-plot level. Diameter structure of abandoned dehesas showed two peaks and a high proportion of trees in the smallest size class. This indicates that the forest degradation process is reversible. An effective regeneration policy should promote a rotating 20- to 30-year set-aside of dehesa parcels.

Land use, biodiversity conservation, and rural development in the dehesas of Cuatro Lugares, Spain

Dehesas are an agrosilvopastoral system that has enhanced the maintenance of an extraordinarily high biodiversity. The traditional use is characterized by mixed livestock raising at low stocking densities, employment of hardy regional breeds and an elaborated maintenance and exploitation of holm oaks. Livestock production has traditionally been accompanied by arable systems with long rotations and closed nutrient cycles without external inputs of fodder, fertilizers and agro-chemicals. Modern trends are a specialization toward lamb and beef production and the employment of intensive techniques like free-range grazing at high stocking levels or crossbreeding with high-performance breeds. A model income statement shows that livestock create an income of 49.91 US

Habitat loss, Fragmentation, and Alteration – Quantifying the Impactof Land-use Changes on a Spanish Dehesa Landscape by Use of Aerial Photography and GIS

per ewe per year on an average basis. The central problem for the continuity of the dehesas is the gradual decay of the tree canopy. Intensification of agricultural production and the abandonment of traditional grazing practices additionally threaten biodiversity within the dehesas. The authors suggest the foundation of a biosphere reserve in Cuatro Lugares as a framework for a sustainable development of the dehesas.

Socio-cultural valuation of ecosystem services in a transhumance social-ecological network

Mediterranean agroforestry landscapes, dehesas, experience significant structural changes that affect their ability to support habitats for a rich biodiversity. The goal of this study is to provide quantitative information on loss, fragmentation, and alteration of holm oak (Quercus ilex) stands over a 42-year period, based on two sites in the lowlands of Cáceres province, Spain. Aerial photography and orthoimages from 1956, 1984, and 1998 were processed in a geographic information system (GIS). Important changes in demography and land-use were rural depopulation, abandonment of traditional agricultural activities, and a sharp increase in livestock stocking levels. These were related to intensification and extensification of land-uses determined by national and EU agricultural policies. Results of the land cover analysis indicated that dehesas suffered an annual 0.27% and 0.04% decrease in cover in the two sites. From 1984 loss rate had markedly accelerated (0.83% and 0.30%). Most dehesas were lost by shrub encroachment or conversion to open grassland. Fragmentation through roads increased by 28% and 45%, while rural buildings decreased by 17% and 50% from 1956 to 1998. Mean tree density decreased from 1956 to 1984, but a recovery was found since 1984. Significant factors determining stand densities in most time points were altitude (related with different land-uses and geological substrates), ownership, and proximity to villages. This suggests that stand structure is controlled both by human interventions and ecological settings. The findings support the view that opposite trends of land abandonment and intensification of land-uses arise in most northern Mediterranean countries as an effect of the EU Common Agricultural Policy.

Participatory scenario planning in place-based social-ecological research: insights and experiences from 23 case studies

Abstract The ecosystem services framework is receiving increasing attention in the fields of policy and research. The assessment of human attitudes and perceptions regarding ecosystem services has been proposed as a promising tool for addressing complex problems associated with environmental change, particularly in the context of cultural landscapes. Transhumance is not only a farming practice responsible for shaping cultural landscapes but also an adaptive strategy based on mobility that may represent a useful approach to overcoming the growing challenges posed by accelerated environmental change. A socio-cultural valuation of ecosystem services associated with the Conquense Drove Road, one of the major transhumant networks still in use in Mediterranean Spain, was conducted via the distribution of questionnaires to 416 local residents and visitors to capture their perceptions regarding the importance of 34 ecosystem services (10 provisioning, 12 regulating, and 12 cultural) for both social and personal well-being. Overall, the ecosystem services considered to be the most important for social well-being were fire prevention, air purification and livestock. Most of the ecosystem services in question were perceived as declining, with the exception of those associated with recreation, scientific knowledge and environmental education. This study revealed that perceptions regarding the value of ecosystem services differed among respondents, depending on their age, place of origin and gender. Several methodological issues, as well as the implications of socio-cultural valuation for policy making, are also discussed here.

Resilience and the cultural landscape : understanding and managing change in human-shaped environments

Participatory scenario planning (PSP) is an increasingly popular tool in place-based environmental research for evaluating alternative futures of social-ecological systems. Although a range of guidelines on PSP methods are available in the scientific and grey literature, there is a need to reflect on existing practices and their appropriate application for different objectives and contexts at the local scale, as well as on their potential perceived outcomes. We contribute to theoretical and empirical frameworks by analyzing how and why researchers assess social-ecological systems using place-based PSP, hence facilitating the appropriate uptake of such scenario tools in the future. We analyzed 23 PSP case studies conducted by the authors in a wide range of social-ecological settings by exploring seven aspects: (1) the context; (2) the original motivations and objectives; (3) the methodological approach; (4) the process; (5) the content of the scenarios; (6) the outputs of the research; and (7) the monitoring and evaluation of the PSP process. This was complemented by a reflection on strengths and weaknesses of using PSP for the place-based social-ecological research. We conclude that the application of PSP, particularly when tailored to shared objectives between local people and researchers, has enriched environmental management and scientific research through building common understanding and fostering learning about future planning of social-ecological systems. However, PSP still requires greater systematic monitoring and evaluation to assess its impact on the promotion of collective action for transitions to sustainability and the adaptation to global environmental change and its challenges.

Land manager attitudes toward management, regeneration, and conservation of Spanish holm oak savannas (dehesas)

Preface 1. Connecting cultural landscapes to resilience Tobias Plieninger and Claudia Bieling Part I. Conceptualising Landscapes and Social-Ecological Systems: 2. Landscapes as integrating frameworks for human, environmental and policy processes Paul Selman 3. From cultural landscapes to resilient social-ecological systems: transformation of a classical paradigm or a novel approach? Thomas Kirchhoff, Fridolin Brand and Deborah Hoheisel 4. Conceptualising the human in cultural landscapes and resilience thinking Lesley Head 5. System or arena? Conceptual concerns around the analysis of landscape dynamics Marie Stenseke, Regina Lindborg, Annika Dhalberg and Elin Slatmo 6. Resilience thinking vs. political ecology: understanding the dynamics of small-scale, labour-intensive farming landscapes Mats Widgren Part II. Analysing Landscape Resilience: 7. In search of resilient behaviour: using the driving forces framework to study cultural landscapes Matthias Burgi, Felix Kienast and Anna M. Hersperger 8. Cultural landscapes as complex adaptive systems: the cases of northern Spain and northern Argentina Alejandro J. Rescia, Maria E. Perez-Corona, Paula Arribas-Urena and John W. Dover 9. Linking path dependency and resilience for the analysis of landscape development Andreas Rohring and Ludger Gailing 10. The sugar-cane landscape of the Caribbean islands: resilience, adaptation and transformation of the plantation social-ecological system William Found and Marta Berbes-Blazquez 11. Offshore wind farming on Germanys North Sea coast: tracing regime shifts across scales Kira Gee and Benjamin Burkhard Part III. Managing Landscapes for Resilience: 12. Collective efforts to manage cultural landscapes for resilience Katrin Prager 13. Response strategy assessment: a tool for evaluating resilience for the management of social-ecological systems Magnus Tuvendal and Thomas Elmqvist 14. Ecosystem services and social-ecological resilience in transhumance cultural landscapes: learning from the past, looking for a future Elisa Oteros-Rozas, Jose A. Gonzalez, Berta Martin-Lopez, Cesar A. Lopez and Carlos Montes 15. The role of homegardens in strengthening social-ecological resilience: case studies from Cuba and Austria Christine Van der Stege, Brigitte Vogl-Lukasser and Christian R. Vogl 16. Promises and pitfalls of adaptive management in resilience thinking: the lens of political ecology Betsy A. Beymer-Farris, Thomas J. Bassett and Ian Bryceson Part IV. Perspectives for Resilient Landscapes: 17. A heterarchy of knowledges: tools for the study of landscape histories and futures Carole L. Crumley 18. Towards a deeper understanding of the social in resilience: the contributions of cultural landscapes Ann P. Kinzig 19. Resilience and cultural landscapes: opportunities, relevance and ways ahead Claudia Bieling and Tobias Plieninger Index.

The Impact of Land Abandonment on Species Richness and Abundance in the Mediterranean Basin: A Meta-Analysis

Abstract Biological conservation in Spanish dehesas critically depends on the long-term persistence of a holm oak tree layer. Managers of private estates in Caceres province, Spain, were surveyed about their conservation attitudes and behavior, especially as regards the widespread regeneration failure of oak stands. The aim was to define land-user perspectives on oak conservation in dehesas as basis for the design of suitable oak regeneration programs. Dehesa estates are managed diversely for a variety of goals, with lamb and beef production predominating. Small operations (‘minifundios’) had significantly higher stocking levels than large operations (‘latifundios’). Results suggest that managers strongly appreciate oaks, both for income- and non-income-related motivations like the preservation of real estate value or family tradition. Concern about threats to oak stands like lacking regeneration, oak decline, or conversion in urban areas varied in intensity, but most managers expected major changes for the future. Statistical relationships were established between oak appreciation and socio-economic variables like age, land ownership, years the operation had been owned by the family, and use of oak products. The survey revealed great confusion about existing oak conservation regulations. For long-term support to be assured, policy should orient its efforts toward conservation incentive schemes, environmental education, and technical assistance.

Exploring Futures of Ecosystem Services in Cultural Landscapes through Participatory Scenario Development in the Swabian Alb, Germany

Land abandonment is common in the Mediterranean Basin, a global biodiversity hotspot, but little is known about its impacts on biodiversity. To upscale existing case-study insights to the Pan-Mediterranean level, we conducted a meta-analysis of the effects of land abandonment on plant and animal species richness and abundance in agroforestry, arable land, pastures, and permanent crops of the Mediterranean Basin. In particular, we investigated (1) which taxonomic groups (arthropods, birds, lichen, vascular plants) are more affected by land abandonment; (2) at which spatial and temporal scales the effect of land abandonment on species richness and abundance is pronounced; (3) whether previous land use and current protected area status affect the magnitude of changes in the number and abundance of species; and (4) how prevailing landforms and climate modify the impacts of land abandonment. After identifying 1240 potential studies, 154 cases from 51 studies that offered comparisons of species richness and abundance and had results relevant to our four areas of investigation were selected for meta-analysis. Results are that land abandonment showed slightly increased (effect size  = 0.2109, P<0.0001) plant and animal species richness and abundance overall, though results were heterogeneous, with differences in effect size between taxa, spatial-temporal scales, land uses, landforms, and climate. In conclusion, there is no “one-size-fits-all” conservation approach that applies to the diverse contexts of land abandonment in the Mediterranean Basin. Instead, conservation policies should strive to increase awareness of this heterogeneity and the potential trade-offs after abandonment. The strong role of factors at the farm and landscape scales that was revealed by the analysis indicates that purposeful management at these scales can have a powerful impact on biodiversity.

Recording Manifestations of Cultural Ecosystem Services in the Landscape

Cultural landscapes are appreciated for the plethora of ecosystem services that they provide to society. They are, however, subject to rapid and fundamental transformations across Europe, mainly as a result of intensification or abandonment of land uses. Our objective is to assess the possible future drivers of cultural landscape changes and their likely impacts on ecosystem services provision as perceived by local actors. We present stakeholder-based scenarios for the Swabian Alb, a biosphere reserve in southern Germany, projected to the yr 2040. On their basis, we explore the possibilities and limitations of local civil engagement for landscape conservation and development in the face of increasing global influences. The steps of the process are (a) identifying the key driving forces of landscape change, (b) developing contrasting narratives about alternative landscape futures, (c) refining the narratives, (d) discussing scenario impacts, and (e) exploring local management strategies. Four contrasting scenarios created by the stakeholders are presented. Global-level drivers are state support/regulations vs. free- market economy, and energy-intensive lifestyles vs. low-energy economy. Local-level forces are high vs. low consumer demand for localized food, and high vs. low appreciation of local cultural landscapes. Outcomes show that cultural landscape development may come to a crossroads over the next 30 yrs, with either combined land abandonment and landscape industrialization scenarios or multifunctional, locally distinct landscape futures being possible. The scenario narratives envision that the most powerful way to develop and protect distinct landscapes is to foster local peoples links to cultural landscapes, to build social capital around them, and to direct consumption patterns toward localized food production. We find that participatory scenario processes have strengths in terms of the credibility, transferability, and confirmability of the insights gained, but are often weak in ensuring dependability.