Todd A. Gilson

Using goal orientations to understand motivation in strength training.

Gilson, TA, Chow, GM, and Ewing, ME. Using goal orientations to understand motivation in strength training. J Strength Cond Res 22: 1169-1175, 2008-Despite the importance that todays athletics place on strength training, research exploring the motivation of athletes in this arena is sparse. It is known that not all athletes will use the same motivational cognitions as inspiration, and these differences can be explored through achievement goal orientations. Through questionnaire data and semistructured interviews, the present study investigated how collegiate athletes maintain high levels of motivation over a period of time during strength training and explored relationships among five goal orientations: task-orientation, self-enhancing ego-orientation, self-defeating ego-orientation, social-approval orientation, and work-avoidance orientation. Subjects (N = 133), comprising 90 men and 43 women, were current varsity collegiate athletes from 15 different sports at a major Midwestern university. In addition, using a screener survey to assess achievement goal orientations, 15 subjects from the sample group who demonstrated a stronger inclination to only one achievement goal orientation were interviewed to gain a more in-depth understanding of their motivation cognitions in strength training. Results showed that the strongest achievement goal orientations reported from all athletes were task-orientation and social-approval. Additionally, five higher-order themes (significant others, improvement, competitive demands, being stronger than others, and miscellaneous) were consistent among the interviewed athletes when describing how they stay motivated during strength training. Whereas all athletes were able to describe at least one motivational strategy they employed during strength training, the dominant achievement goal orientation of some athletes influenced their motivational strategy. By employing the T.A.R.G.E.T. model (1), strength coaches can foster adaptive achievement goal orientations and thereby enhance intrinsic motivation for athletes engaging in strength training.

A meta-analytic review of Elliot's (1999) Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance Motivation in the sport, physical activity, and physical education literature

Purpose The purpose of this quantitative review was to summarize the state of Elliots Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance Motivation, specifically the antecedents of the 2 × 2 achievement goals in the sport, physical activity, and physical education literature. In addition, the intercorrelations amongst the 2 × 2 goals were also examined. Methods A systematic review of the literature was conducted. Meta-analytic procedures were used with the mean weighted sample correlation (rw) as the effect size metric. The antecedents were coded by Elliots (1999) antecedent categories. A number of moderators were coded a priori. Results Based on a fixed effects model from 47 published studies (total unique n = 15,413) that met inclusion criteria, the 2 × 2 achievement goals were significantly correlated amongst each other ranging from small to medium to large in meaningfulness. Concerning the antecedents, overall they were theoretically correct in associations, but only a few of the relationships were medium in meaningfulness. Most relationships were small in meaningfulness. Heterogeneity was present for the interrcorrelation and antecedent analyses. Conclusion Future research is encouraged to grow and enrich the understanding of achievement goals within Elliots complete Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance Motivation to include both antecedents and outcomes simultaneously to improve upon the understanding of achievement motivation in sport, exercise, and physical activity settings.

One high school basketball coach’s self-study of leadership development

Abstract Over the course of one high school basketball season, a coach chronicled his journey as a mentor of his captains, leadership development and conducted a self-study on the data. Through field notes, interviews with captains, and journals, the coach described his successes and failures as a mentor in allowing captains to use their personal voice, distributing and delegating leadership tasks to captains, offering reminders of important leadership concepts, learning to mentor athletically skilled but quiet or inconsistent captains, and setting an effective example as the coach. Following the data presentation, a discussion regarding future research opportunities and practical applications for coaches is provided.

An ethnographic person-centered study of leadership development in high school basketball team captains

ABSTRACT Using Kouzes and Posner’s (2002. The leadership challenge (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass) Five Exemplary Practices of Leadership as a framework, four captains of a high school boys’ basketball team participated in a qualitative person-centered ethnography regarding their perceptions of leadership development over the course of a season. The study found that the captains each perceived improvement in their use of voice in leadership situations, and not much improvement in other self-defined specific leadership areas. The captains also perceived that their improvement was a maturation process driven by necessity and precipitated by observation, personal experience, mentoring and coaching, and increased confidence. Finally, captains described hindrances to their leadership, including personal circumstances and difficult teammates. Implications of these findings for athletic coaches are discussed, including specific ideas for providing mentoring and instruction for team captains and other team members.

Post-LDAC Reflections of ROTC Cadets: Relationship to Leadership and Performance

In the United States Reserve Officer Training Program, cadets attend a month-long camp, where they are evaluated on leadership ability. The purpose of this study was to assess the experiences of cadets upon their return. Through semistructured interviews, with 25 cadets, 3 distinct higher order themes emerged: (a) perceived difficulty of the Leadership Development and Assessment Course, (b) psychological skills required for success, and (c) social climate experienced. Furthermore, upon completion of general inductive analysis, cadets’ responses were compared to their leadership score, thereby highlighting how salient aspects of leadership manifest themselves through cadets’ behaviors and performances.

“Drive On”: The Relationship Between Psychological Variables and Effective Squad Leadership

The U.S. Reserve Officer Training Program (ROTC) conducts systematic assessments of cadets’ leadership abilities during field training exercises (FTX) to assess their leadership abilities. While cadets in ROTC programs learn specific tactical operation procedures to augment FTX performances, much less is known about the relationship between psychological variables and squad leadership performance. To this end, 220 cadets completed self-efficacy, psychological flexibility, and grit questionnaires, which were then compared to FTX performance scores. Results underscored that only self-efficacy was significantly related to cadets’ squad leadership ability. Furthermore, prior service in the U.S. Army had no effect on the performance score one attained, highlighting an interesting paradox. Therefore, while self-efficacy can be cultivated through prior experiences, it seems more prudent to educate ROTC cadets on how to apply psychological skills to bolster self-efficacy in preparation for upcoming challenging leadership experiences.