Todd J. Maurer

A model of involvement in work-related learning and development activity: The effects of individual, situational, motivational, and age variables

Eight hundred employees from across the U.S. work force participated in a detailed 13-month longitudinal study of involvement in learning and development activities. A new model was posited and tested in which the hypothesized sequence was as follows: worker age --> individual and situational antecedents --> perceived benefits of participation and self-efficacy for development --> attitudes toward development --> intentions to participate --> participation. The results depict a person who is oriented toward employee development as having participated in development activities before, perceiving themselves as possessing qualities needed for learning, having social support for development at work and outside of work, being job involved, having insight into his or her career, and believing in the need for development, in his or her ability to develop skills and to receive intrinsic benefits from participating. Given the aging work force, a detailed treatment of age differences in development is presented. Implications for new ideas in practice and future research are discussed.

Career-relevant learning and development, worker age, and beliefs about self-efficacy for development

While employee continuous learning is increasing in importance and labor markets are tightening, the average age of workers is also increasing. But older workers may not participate in learning and development activities as much as younger workers. This paper explores an important and under-recognized factor that may contribute to this age effect: a decline in self-confidence (or self-efficacy) for career-relevant learning and skill development with age. The review explores various factors in an organizational setting which might lead to reduced self-confidence for learning, and subsequently, lower participation in learning/development activities. Suggestions for managing older workers and for research on this topic are offered.

Peer and subordinate performance appraisal measurement equivalence

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and item response theory (IRT) were applied to determine the extent to which peer and subordinate ratings of managers on a team-building skill dimension are directly comparable. Simultaneous CFA in the 2 groups of raters suggested that the 2 sets of ratings are calibrated equivalently, and polytomous IRT methods led to similar conclusions. The results were replicated in independent samples of raters. These are encouraging results for practitioners or researchers who compare ratings from these 2 groups. In addition to presenting the empirical findings from the study and illustrating how CFA and IRT methods of testing measurement equivalence compare, the article shows the unique types of information about performance appraisals that IRT and CFA can provide to researchers and practitioners, with implications for future research.

Management development intentions following feedback – Role of perceived outcomes, social pressures, and control

Within a large telecommunications company, this study applied the Theory of Planned Behavior to understand managers’ intentions to improve their skills following peer/subordinate feedback. Survey responses from 127 managers who had just received their feedback results showed that three types of variables were associated with managers’ intentions to improve their skills. First, perceived favorable outcomes or benefits of improvement had differential relationships with intentions for on‐ and off‐the‐job strategies for improvement. Second, and independent of perceived benefits, perceived social pressures for improvement were associated with intentions to improve, illustrating that “voluntary” development behavior can be related to both perceived rewards (a pull) and social pressures (a push). Third, ratees’ perceived control over their own improvement was also related to intentions, illustrating the important role that this factor may play in development. In two subsequent waves of feedback, actual improvement in the managers’ peer/subordinate ratings following initial feedback was also examined in relation to intentions. Suggestions for future research are also offered.

Traditional, Likert, and Simplified Measures of Self-Efficacy

Three methods of measuring self-efficacy were compared: traditional, Likert, and a simplified scale. Scores on the three scales had highly similar reliability and validity and were strongly related. The Likert and simplified scales required 50% and 70% (respectively) fewer participant responses than the traditional format, whereas the traditional and Likert formats provided more specific diagnostic information.

TOWARD UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING STEREOTYPICAL BELIEFS ABOUT OLDER WORKERS’ ABILITY AND DESIRE FOR LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

A model of stereotypical beliefs that older workers have difficulty learning and developing and are not motivated to learn is presented. Three categories of antecedents of the stereotypical beliefs are addressed: (1) experience with stereotype-consistent behaviors and promulgation of the stereotype by others; (2) perceived learning and development inhibitors internal to the older worker; and (3) perceived learning and development inhibitors external to the older worker. Potential consequences of the stereotypical beliefs for older workers and employing organizations are also explored. Individuating information and knowledge of within-older-group differences are posited to attenuate the influence of group-based stereotypes. Processes and tactics within organizations that should increase this information and knowledge are presented. The proposed model provides a framework to help guide future research on this topic and also some suggestions for managing a work place where these beliefs may exist.

The Relationship Between SME Job Experience and Job Analysis Ratings: Findings with and without Statistical Control

This investigation examined the relationship between SME job experience and job analysis ratings. Managerial job incumbents (N = 209) provided job analysis ratings which measured 9 task frequency and 6 skill importance components. Job experience was operationalized as both job tenure and residualized job tenure (i.e., statistically-controlled for SME characteristics correlated with job tenure). Respondents were categorized into low, medium, and high groups for each tenure measure. MANOVA results indicated that task ratings differed across residualized tenure groups, while skill ratings did not. Statistical control of the job tenure measure made a substantial difference in results. For the non-residualized tenure groups, findings were reversed: skill ratings differed across non-residualized tenure groups, while task ratings did not. The results of this research are integrated with the existing literature and implications for future research and practice are offered.

SME Committee vs. Field Job Analysis Ratings: Convergence, Cautions, and a Call

This investigation examined the agreement between job analysis ratings completed by a small committee of subject matter experts (SMEs) and ratings made by a larger sample of field respondents. The results indicated there were very high levels of agreement across six commonly used job analysis rating indices. These findings converge with those in prior studies suggesting that for purposes of obtaining task and KSA ratings, a small committee of SMEs may provide empirical results that agree with those obtained from a larger sample of field respondents. However, cautions are presented for applying a “committee only” strategy in job analysis. Given convergence in conclusions across studies such as the current one thus far, a call for future research which addresses more specific issues is presented.

A proposed model for effective negotiation skill development

Purpose Previous research on negotiation skills has focused mostly on the negotiation itself and tactics used when bargaining, while little research has examined the process by which people become effective negotiators. The purpose of this paper is to develop an initial model from an intra-organizational perspective to outline the factors that contribute to the development of negotiation skills and behaviors by employees. Design/methodology/approach This conceptual paper relies on prior research and existing theory to focus on the types of developmental and learning experiences and processes that lead to the acquisition of three specific types of key negotiation skills and behaviors. Findings Distributive, integrative, and adaptable negotiation skills are developed most effectively via different learning and development activities, respectively. Additionally, unique individual difference and situational variables could contribute to particular negotiation behaviors, either directly or via an interaction with developmental experiences. Practical implications The paper proposes a model for future testing in which results can provide support for tailored/customized training and development of employee negotiation skills. Providing the correct people with the correct tools in the correct manner is always desirable by practitioners. Originality/value This proposed holistic model provides new insights, structure, and suggestions for more research on factors that lead to negotiation skill development and exhibition of effective negotiation behaviors. This paper goes beyond description of negotiation tactics and addresses the various negotiation contexts and the unique skills needed for each. Most importantly, the paper addresses how those skills are uniquely and most effectively developed.