Todd M. Loughead

Investigating the mediational relationship of leadership, class cohesion, and adherence in an exercise setting

The purpose of this study was to determine if older adults’ perceptions of class cohesion serve as a mediator between exercise class leader behavior and adherence (operationally defined as attendance and perceived exertion) in exercise programs. Participants were enrolled in recreational exercise programs. Each participant completed a questionnaire that assessed cohesion (individual attractions to the group-task [ATG-T] and -social, group integration-task [GI-T] and group integration-social), class leader behaviors (enthusiasm, availability, motivation, and instruction), and perceived exertion. Attendance was obtained from records maintained by the instructors. Four specific mediation relationships were found: (a) ATG-T mediated the relationship between class leader motivation and perceived exertion, (b) ATG-T mediated the relationship between class leader availability and perceived exertion, (c) ATG-T mediated the relationship between class leader enthusiasm and attendance, (d) GI-T mediated relations between class leader enthusiasm and attendance. A number of aspects related to specific results were discussed.

Cohesion as shared beliefs in exercise classes

The purpose of the study was to determine if perceptions of cohesion in exercise classes demonstrated sufficiently high consensus and between-group variance to support a conclusion that exercise classes are groups. Participants (N = 1,700) in 130classes were tested on either the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) or the Physical Activity Group Environment Questionnaire (PAGEQ). Results showed that exercise classes satisfied the statistical criteria necessary to support a conclusion that they are true groups; that is, they exhibited acceptable levels of consensus about cohesion within classes and acceptable differences in cohesion between classes. In addition, index-of-agreement values were significantly greater for participants completing the PAGEQ than for participants completing the GEQ. Finally, consensus was greatest when participants evaluated how the exercise class satisfied their own personal task needs (i.e., individual attractions to the group-task), and second greatest when participants evaluated the collective unity around the task objectives (i.e., group integration-task).

Ice hockey coaches' perceptions of athlete leadership.

The purpose of this study was to identify ice hockey coaches’ perceptions of the factors influencing athlete leadership. Semi-structured open-ended interviews were conducted with six high performance ice hockey coaches of elite 16- to 20-year-old athletes. The results indicated how coaches selected and developed their athlete leaders, how they fostered the coach-athlete leader relationship and the responsibilities of their athlete leaders. These results provide coaches with new information on how to identify and develop their athlete leaders, as well as how to cultivate positive relationships with them.

The prevalence and recovery of concussed male and female collegiate athletes

Abstract The aims of the present study were two-fold: (1) to examine whether gender and explanatory style influence the number of concussions an athlete has sustained and the amount of time to recover from this type of injury; and (2) to determine whether gender and the type of sport influence the number of and recovery from concussion injuries. University varsity athletes (n=170) who had sustained at least one concussion over the previous 12 months from six sports completed both the Sport History Questionnaire (Delaney, Lacroix, Leclerc, & Johnston, 2000), used to measure concussions, and the Attributional Style Questionnaire (Peterson et al., 1982), used to measure explanatory style. Overall, males sustained more concussions than female athletes (F 1,153=43.92, P<0.05). Regarding the type of concussion, male athletes sustained more unrecognized concussions than female athletes (F 1,168=6.18, P<0.05), but there was no difference between the sexes for recognized concussions (F 1,168=0.44, P>0.05). Male basketball players took longer to recover (mean=6.17 days) than female basketball players (mean=1.15 days). In contrast, female hockey players took longer to recover (mean=9.56 days) than male hockey players (mean=1.00 day). Finally, gender did not influence an athletes explanatory style.

Team building for youth sport.

JOPERD • Volume 79 No. 9 • November/December 2008 A major component of physical activity for children is participation in team sports at both the recreational and the competitive levels. In Canada, over half (54%) of children ages fi ve to 14 are involved in sports on a yearly basis (Sport Canada, 2000). Similarly, in the United States, 39 percent of children ages nine to 13 participate in organized physical activity (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2002). Weinberg and Gould (2007) indicated that the primary reason children become involved and stay active in sport is to have fun. More precisely, a review of more than 1,000 male and female youth-sport participants’ reasons for athletic involvement ranked having fun fi rst, followed by skill improvement, challenge, and being physically fi t (Gill, Gross, & Huddleston, 1983). Unfortunately, youth sport participation begins declining after the age of 12. This fi nding is especially worrisome because that age is also a crucial time for the development of children’s social skills and self-esteem. A number of reasons have been proposed to account for this dropout behavior. These include personal aspects such as lack of desire, as well as social aspects such as negative experiences with coaches (Hedstrom & Gould, 2004; Wankel & Mummery, 1996). One way that coaches can improve the sporting environment is through group activities that promote team building. The purpose of this article is to explain the value, use, and advantages of team building for enhancing the youth sport experience.

An examination of the relationship between athlete leadership and cohesion using social network analysis

ABSTRACT Two studies investigated the structure of different athlete leadership networks and its relationship to cohesion using social network analysis. In Study 1, we examined the relationship between a general leadership quality network and task and social cohesion as measured by the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ). In Study 2, we investigated the leadership networks for four different athlete leadership roles (task, motivational, social and external) and their association with task and social cohesion networks. In Study 1, the results demonstrated that the general leadership quality network was positively related to task and social cohesion. The results from Study 2 indicated positive correlations between the four leadership networks and task and social cohesion networks. Further, the motivational leadership network emerged as the strongest predictor of the task cohesion network, while the social leadership network was the strongest predictor of the social cohesion network. The results complement a growing body of research indicating that athlete leadership has a positive association with cohesion.

The impact of fitness leader behavior and cohesion on an exerciser's affective state

Abstract The purpose of the present study was to determine whether cohesion served to mediate the relationship between fitness leader behavior and an exercisers affective state. The participants were 151 adults (115 females and 36 males) enrolled in various physical activity programs. Following one of their exercise classes, each participant completed a questionnaire that assessed fitness leader behaviors (commitment to service quality, interpersonal interaction, and task interaction), cohesion (individual attractions to the group‐task and ‐social, group integration‐task and ‐ social), and affect (positive affect, negative affect, fatigue, tranquility). Two specific mediation relationships were found: (a) Individual attractions to the group‐task served to mediate the relationship between fitness leader behavior of task interaction and positive affect, and (b) individual attractions to the group‐task served to mediate the relationship between exercise leader behavior of task interaction and negative affect. Based on the results, it would appear important that fitness leaders strive to develop more cohesive exercise classes through the use of team‐building activities.

Investigating athlete mentoring functions and their association with leadership behaviours and protégé satisfaction

The purpose of the present study was twofold. The first purpose was to examine the relationship between athlete mentor leadership behaviours and protégé receipt of mentoring functions. The second purpose was to examine the association between mentoring functions and protégé satisfaction. Intercollegiate athletes who indicated that they were protégés (N = 272) completed measures to assess their athlete mentors’ use of leadership behaviours (DTLI) and mentoring functions (MRI). Protégés also completed an instrument (ASQ) which assessed the degree to which they were personally satisfied during the time they were mentored. The results of structural equation modelling showed that the transformational leadership behaviour of inspirational motivation was positively related to psychosocial mentoring. In addition, the transformational leadership behaviour of intellectual stimulation and the transactional leadership behaviour of contingent reward showed positive associations to vocational mentoring. Finally, results showed that psychosocial mentoring was positively related to protégé satisfaction. These findings provide sport psychology consultants, coaches, and athletes with important knowledge concerning which mentoring functions are related to specific leadership behaviours and protégé satisfaction.

A comparison of well-peer mentored and non-peer mentored athletes’ perceptions of satisfaction

Abstract The purpose of the present study was to compare well-peer mentored and non-peer mentored athletes’ perceptions of satisfaction. A total of 444 intercollegiate athletes (272 well-peer mentored and 172 non-peer mentored) from a variety of sport teams participated in the study. Athletes from both well-peer mentored and non-peer mentored groups reported their satisfaction levels using the Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire. The results of a MANOVA and follow-up post hoc ANOVAs showed that well-peer mentored athletes were significantly more satisfied than their non-peer mentored counterparts in terms of individual performance, personal dedication, team task contribution, team social contribution, team integration, ethics, ability utilisation and training and instruction. Overall, the findings suggest that athletes who are well-peer mentored by a teammate perceive higher satisfaction levels with various aspects of their athletic experience than athletes who are not peer mentored by a teammate. Given these positive findings, practitioners (i.e., coaches, sport psychology consultants) should inform athletes on the benefits of peer-to-peer mentoring. The practical implications of the results and strategies to promote peer athlete mentoring relationships in sport are highlighted.

Validation of the Child Sport Cohesion Questionnaire.

The purpose of the present study was to test the validity evidence of the Child Sport Cohesion Questionnaire (CSCQ). To accomplish this task, convergent, discriminant, and known-group difference validity were examined, along with factorial validity via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Child athletes (N = 290, Mage  = 10.73 ± 1.13 years) from six elementary schools completed the CSCQ (Martin, Carron, Eys, & Loughead, 2012), a sport satisfaction questionnaire (Duda & Nicholls, 1992), the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory—2 Children (Stadulis, MacCracken, Eidson, & Severance, 2002), and a Self-Efficacy Questionnaire—Soccer (Munroe-Chandler & Hall, 2004). Results indicated that cohesion was positively related to satisfaction and negatively related to anxiety in children, providing support for convergent validity. Additionally, as hypothesized, social cohesion was less correlated to self-efficacy than task cohesion, supporting discriminant validity. Finally, support for the factorial validity of the CSCQ was demonstrated through acceptable fit indices.