Todd Thorsen

Microfluidic large scale integration

We developed high-density microfluidic chips that contain plumbing networks with thousands of micromechanical valves and hundreds of individually addressable chambers. These fluidic devices are analogous to electronic integrated circuits fabricated using large-scale integration. A key component of these networks is the fluidic multiplexor, which is a combinatorial array of binary valve patterns that exponentially increases the processing power of a network by allowing complex fluid manipulations with a minimal number of inputs. We used these integrated microfluidic networks to construct the microfluidic analog of a comparator array and a microfluidic memory storage device whose behavior resembles random-access memory.

High-density microfluidic arrays for cell cytotoxicity analysis

In this paper, we report on the development of a multilayer elastomeric microfluidic array platform for the high-throughput cell cytotoxicity screening of mammalian cell lines. Microfluidic channels in the platform for cell seeding are orthogonal to channels for toxin exposure, and within each channel intersection is a circular chamber with cell-trapping sieves. Integrated, pneumatically-actuated elastomeric valves within the device isolate the microchannel array within the device into parallel rows and columns for cell seeding and toxin exposure. As a demonstration of the multiplexing capability of the platform, a microfluidic array containing 576 chambers was used to screen three cell types (BALB/3T3, HeLa, and bovine endothelial cells) against a panel of five toxins (digitonin, saponin, CoCl(2), NiCl(2), acrolein). Evaluation of on-chip cell morphology and viability was carried out using fluorescence microscopy, with outcomes comparable to microtiter plate cytotoxicity assays. Using this scalable platform, cell seeding and toxin exposure can be carried out within a single microfluidic device in a multiplexed format, enabling high-density parallel cytotoxicity screening while minimizing reagent consumption.

Fast ac electro-osmotic micropumps with nonplanar electrodes

This letter demonstrates dramatic improvements in flow rate and frequency range over conventional planar ac electro-osmotic (ACEO) pumps by exploiting three-dimensional (3D) stepped electrodes. A 3D ACEO pump was fabricated by electroplating steps on a symmetric electrode array and tested against a state-of-the-art asymmetric planar ACEO pump in a microfluidic loop. For all frequencies (0.1–100kHz), the 3D pump had a faster flow rate, in some cases by an order of magnitude. Their experimental results suggest that, after some optimization, mm/s velocities will be attainable with alternating battery voltages, which presents an exciting opportunity for microfluidics.

Functional Expression of Horseradish Peroxidase in E.coli by Directed Evolution

In an effort to develop a bacterial expression system for horseradish peroxidase (HRP), we inserted the gene encoding HRP into the pET‐22b(+) vector (Novagen) as a fusion to the signal peptide PelB. A similar construct for cytochrome c peroxidase (CcP) leads to high CcP activity in the supernatant. Expression of the wild‐type HRP gene in the presence of isopropyl‐β‐d‐thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) yielded no detectable activity against ABTS (azinobis(ethylbenzthiazoline sulfonate) ). However, weak peroxidase activity was detected in the supernatant in the absence of IPTG. The HRP gene was subjected to directed evolution: random mutagenesis and gene recombination followed by screening in a 96‐well microplate format. From 12 000 clones screened in the first generation, one was found that showed 14‐fold higher HRP activity than wild‐type, amounting to ∼110 μg of HRP/L, which is similar to that reported from laborious in vitro refolding. No further improvement was obtained in subsequent generations of directed evolution. This level of expression has nonetheless enabled us to carry out further directed evolution to render the enzyme more thermostable and more resistant toward inactivation by H2O2. These results show that directed evolution can identify mutations that assist proteins to fold more efficiently in Escherichia coli. This approach will greatly facilitate efforts to “fine‐tune” those many enzymes that are promising industrial biocatalysts, but for which suitable bacterial or yeast expression systems are currently lacking.

Development of an integrated microfluidic platform for dynamic oxygen sensing and delivery in a flowing medium

This paper describes a platform for real-time sensing of dissolved oxygen in a flowing microfluidic environment using an oxygen-sensitive luminescent dye (platinum octaethylporphyrin ketone) integrated into a micro-oxygenator device. Using a phase-based detection method, the luminescent decay lifetime of the dye was consistent with the linear Stern-Volmer relationship using both gaseous and aqueous samples. Maximum sensor resolution varied between 120-780 ppb across a range of dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations ranging from 0-42.5 ppm. The sensor was subsequently used to determine the convective mass-transfer characteristics of a multi-layer polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfluidic oxygenator. The membrane-based oxygenator showed excellent agreement with an analytical convection model, and the integrated oxygen sensor was accurate across a wide range of tested flow rates (0.05-5 mL min(-1)). The device is unique for its ease of fabrication and highly flexible configuration, as well as the novel incorporation of oxygen delivery and detection in a single micro-device. Potential applications include tissue engineering, cell culturing, and miniaturized bio-assays that require the delivery and/or detection of precise quantities of oxygen within a microfluidic construct.

Abstraction layers for scalable microfluidic biocomputing

Microfluidic devices are emerging as an attractive technology for automatically orchestrating the reactions needed in a biological computer. Thousands of microfluidic primitives have already been integrated on a single chip, and recent trends indicate that the hardware complexity is increasing at rates comparable to Moore’s Law. As in the case of silicon, it will be critical to develop abstraction layers—such as programming languages and Instruction Set Architectures (ISAs)—that decouple software development from changes in the underlying device technology. Towards this end, this paper presents BioStream, a portable language for describing biology protocols, and the Fluidic ISA, a stable interface for microfluidic chip designers. A novel algorithm translates microfluidic mixing operations from the BioStream layer to the Fluidic ISA. To demonstrate the benefits of these abstraction layers, we build two microfluidic chips that can both execute BioStream code despite significant differences at the device level. We consider this to be an important step towards building scalable biological computers.

Culturing Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria and Mammalian Cells with a Microfluidic Differential Oxygenator

In this manuscript, we report on the culture of anaerobic and aerobic species within a disposable multilayer polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfluidic device with an integrated differential oxygenator. A gas-filled microchannel network functioning as an oxygen−nitrogen mixer generates differential oxygen concentration. By controlling the relative flow rate of the oxygen and nitrogen input gases, the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration in proximal microchannels filled with culture media are precisely regulated by molecular diffusion. Sensors consisting of an oxygen-sensitive dye embedded in the fluid channels permit dynamic fluorescence-based monitoring of the DO concentration using low-cost light-emitting diodes. To demonstrate the general utility of the platform for both aerobic and anaerobic culture, three bacteria with differential oxygen requirements (E. coli, A. viscosus, and F. nucleatum), as well as a model mammalian cell line (murine embryonic fibroblast cells (3T3)), were cultured. Growth characteristics of the selected species were analyzed as a function of eight discrete DO concentrations, ranging from 0 ppm (anaerobic) to 42 ppm (fully saturated).

Noninvasive metabolic profiling using microfluidics for analysis of single preimplantation embryos.

Noninvasive analysis of metabolism at the single cell level will have many applications in evaluating cellular physiology. One clinically relevant application would be to determine the metabolic activities of embryos produced through assisted reproduction. There is increasing evidence that embryos with greater developmental capacity have distinct metabolic profiles. One of the standard techniques for evaluating embryonic metabolism has been to evaluate consumption and production of several key energetic substrates (glucose, pyruvate, and lactate) using microfluorometric enzymatic assays. These assays are performed manually using constriction pipets, which greatly limits the utility of this system. Through multilayer soft-lithography, we have designed a microfluidic device that can perform these assays in an automated fashion. Following manual loading of samples and enzyme cocktail reagents, this system performs sample and enzyme cocktail aliquotting, mixing of reagents, data acquisition, and data analysis without operator intervention. Optimization of design and operating regimens has resulted in the ability to perform serial measurements of glucose, pyruvate, and lactate in triplicate with submicroliter sample volumes within 5 min. The current architecture allows for automated analysis of 10 samples and intermittent calibration over a 3 h period. Standard curves generated for each metabolite have correlation coefficients that routinely exceed 0.99. With the use of a standard epifluorescent microscope and CCD camera, linearity is obtained with metabolite concentrations in the low micromolar range (low femtomoles of total analyte). This system is inherently flexible, being easily adapted for any NAD(P)H-based assay and scaled up in terms of sample ports. Open source JAVA-based software allows for simple alterations in routine algorithms. Furthermore, this device can be used as a standalone device in which media samples are loaded or be integrated into microfluidic culture systems for in line, real time metabolic evaluation. With the improved throughput and flexibility of this system, many barriers to evaluating metabolism of embryos and single cells are eliminated. As a proof of principle, metabolic activities of single murine embryos were evaluated using this device.

Building a better cell trap: Applying Lagrangian modeling to the design of microfluidic devices for cell biology

In this report, we show how computational fluid dynamics can be applied to the design of efficient hydrodynamic cell traps in microfluidic devices. Modeled hydrodynamic trap designs included a large, multiple-aperture “C-type” sieve for trapping hundreds of cells, flat single-aperture arrays for single cells, and “U-type” hydrodynamic structures with one or two apertures to confine small clusters of cells 10‐15 cells per trap. Using 3T3 cells as a model system, the motion of each individual cell was calculated using a one-way coupled Lagrangian method. The cell was assumed to be a solid sphere, and interactions with other cells were only considered when a cell sedimented in the trap. The ordinary differential equations were solved along the cell trajectory for the three components of the velocity and location vector by using the Rosenbrock method based on an adaptive time-stepping technique. Validation of the predictive value of modeling, using 3T3 cells flowed through microfluidic devices containing “U-type sieves” under the simulation flow parameters, showed excellent agreement between experiment and simulation with respect to cell number per trap and the uniformity of cell distribution within individual microchambers. For applications such as on-chip cell culture or high-throughput screening of cell populations within a lab-on-a-chip environment, Lagrangian simulations have the potential to greatly simplify the design process.

Generation of uniform photonic balls by template-assisted colloidal crystallization

Uniform assemblies of all-identical colloidal particles, so-called photonic balls, are produced by injecting an aqueous suspension of polymer latex spheres into a surfactant-laden oil phase at an oil/water junction of capillary tubes or soft-microfluidic devices. The size of these assemblies can be controlled by varying the injection pressure or particle concentration.