Tomàs Santalucía

Astrocyte TLR4 activation induces a proinflammatory environment through the interplay between MyD88-dependent NFκB signaling, MAPK, and Jak1/Stat1 pathways

There is increasing evidence that astrocytes play important roles in immune regulation in the brain. Astrocytes express toll‐like receptors (TLR) and build up responses to innate immune triggers by releasing proinflammatory molecules. We investigate signaling pathways and released molecules after astrocyte TLR4 activation. Purified rodent brain astrocyte cultures were treated with the TLR4 activator bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Tools used to interfere with this system include small interference RNA, inhibitory drugs, and MyD88 or Stat1 deficient mice. LPS induced early activation of the transcription factor NFκB, through the MyD88 adaptor, and expression of TNF‐α, VCAM‐1, IL‐15, and IL‐27. LPS also induced delayed Jak1/Stat1 activation, which was MyD88‐independent but was not mediated by IFN‐β. Jak1/Stat1 activation induced the expression of negative cytokine regulator SOCS‐1 and CXCL10 chemokine (IP‐10). Mitogen‐activated protein kinases (MAPK) were also involved in TLR4 signaling in a MyD88‐independent fashion. p38 exerted a strong influence on LPS‐induced gene expression by regulating the phosphorylation of Stat1 and the transcriptional activity of NFκB, while JNK regulated the Jak1/Stat1 pathway, and ERK1/2 controlled the expression of Egr‐1 and influenced MyD88‐dependent MMP‐9 expression. Interplay between these signals was evidenced by the increased induction of MMP‐9 in Stat1‐deficient cells challenged with LPS, suggesting that Stat1 negatively regulates the expression of MMP‐9 induced by LPS. Therefore, astrocytes are responsive to TLR4 activation by inducing a complex set of cell‐dependent molecular reactions mediated by NFκB, MAPK and Jak1/Stat1 signaling pathways. Here we identified cross‐talking signals generating a proinflammatory environment that will modulate the response of surrounding cells.

Induction of COX-2 Enzyme and Down-regulation of COX-1 Expression by Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) Control Prostaglandin E2 Production in Astrocytes

Background: The relative contribution of COX-2 and COX-1 to prostanoid formation under neuroinflammation is complex. Results: LPS induced COX-2 and mPGES1 but down-regulated COX-1 and TS in astroglia. These effects accounted for the high production of PGE2. Conclusion: PGE2 after LPS results from the coordinated COX-2 up-regulation and COX-1 down-regulation in astrocytes. Significance: Changes in COX-2 and COX-1 expression mediate astroglial PGE2 generation in neuroinflammation. Pathological conditions and pro-inflammatory stimuli in the brain induce cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), a key enzyme in arachidonic acid metabolism mediating the production of prostanoids that, among other actions, have strong vasoactive properties. Although low basal cerebral COX-2 expression has been reported, COX-2 is strongly induced by pro-inflammatory challenges, whereas COX-1 is constitutively expressed. However, the contribution of these enzymes in prostanoid formation varies depending on the stimuli and cell type. Astrocyte feet surround cerebral microvessels and release molecules that can trigger vascular responses. Here, we investigate the regulation of COX-2 induction and its role in prostanoid generation after a pro-inflammatory challenge with the bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in astroglia. Intracerebral administration of LPS in rodents induced strong COX-2 expression mainly in astroglia and microglia, whereas COX-1 expression was predominant in microglia and did not increase. In cultured astrocytes, LPS strongly induced COX-2 and microsomal prostaglandin-E2 (PGE2) synthase-1, mediated by the MyD88-dependent NFκB pathway and influenced by mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Studies in COX-deficient cells and using COX inhibitors demonstrated that COX-2 mediated the high production of PGE2 and, to a lesser extent, other prostanoids after LPS. In contrast, LPS down-regulated COX-1 in an MyD88-dependent fashion, and COX-1 deficiency increased PGE2 production after LPS. The results show that astrocytes respond to LPS by a COX-2-dependent production of prostanoids, mainly vasoactive PGE2, and suggest that the coordinated down-regulation of COX-1 facilitates PGE2 production after TLR-4 activation. These effects might induce cerebral blood flow responses to brain inflammation.

Differential Regulation of the Muscle-specific GLUT4 Enhancer in Regenerating and Adult Skeletal Muscle

We have reported a novel functional co-operation among MyoD, myocyte enhancer factor-2 (MEF2), and the thyroid hormone receptor in a muscle-specific enhancer of the rat GLUT4 gene in muscle cells. Here, we demonstrate that the muscle-specific enhancer of the GLUT4 gene operates in skeletal muscle and is muscle fiber-dependent and innervation-independent. Under normal conditions, both in soleus and in extensor digitorum longus muscles, the activity of the enhancer required the integrity of the MEF2-binding site. Cancellation of the binding site of thyroid hormone receptor enhanced its activity, suggesting an inhibitory role. Muscle regeneration of the soleus and extensor digitorum longus muscles caused a marked induction of GLUT4 and stimulation of the enhancer activity, which was independent of innervation. During muscle regeneration, the enhancer activity was markedly inhibited by cancellation of the binding sites of MEF2, MyoD, or thyroid hormone receptors. Different MEF2 isoforms expressed in skeletal muscle (MEF2A, MEF2C, and MEF2D) and all members of the MyoD family had the capacity to participate in the activity of the GLUT4 enhancer as assessed by transient transfection in cultured cells. Our data indicate that the GLUT4 enhancer operates in muscle fibers and its activity contributes to the differences in GLUT4 gene expression between oxidative and glycolytic muscle fibers and to the GLUT4 up-regulation that occurs during muscle regeneration. The activity of the enhancer is maintained in adult muscle by MEF2, whereas during regeneration the operation of the enhancer depends on MEF2, myogenic transcription factors of the MyoD family, and thyroid hormone receptors.

Astrocytes are very sensitive to develop innate immune responses to lipid-carried short interfering RNA.

Short interfering RNA (siRNA) inhibits the synthesis of specific proteins through RNA interference (RNAi). However, siRNA can induce innate immune responses that are mediated by toll‐like receptors (TLRs) in cells of the immune system. Here, we sought to evaluate whether siRNA can induce such responses in glial cells. We examined the effects of various siRNA sequences prepared with lipids (oligofectamine). Lipid‐siRNA induced variable degrees of silencing‐independent nonspecific effects, e.g. increased Stat1 and Cox‐2 expression and release of IL‐6 and IP‐10 in primary astroglia. This was prevented through chemical modification of siRNA by nucleoside 2′‐O‐methylation, without impairing specific gene silencing. Lipid‐siRNA also induced nonspecific responses in purified astroglia, but not in microglia, or 3T3 cells. The highest TLR7 and TLR3 mRNA expression was found in microglia and purified astroglia, respectively. Accordingly, the TLR3 agonist poly(I:C) (PIC) induced higher release of IFN‐β in primary and purified astroglia than in microglia. As siRNA, PIC induced IP‐10, Stat1, VCAM‐1, and Cox‐2 and increased TLR3 mRNA expression. The effects of lipid‐siRNA in purified astrocytes were attenuated after silencing TLR3 or TLR7 expression, and by the PKR inhibitor 2‐aminopurine. Furthermore, lipid‐siRNA induced the expression of RIG‐I. In contrast, siRNA devoid of lipids did not enter the astrocytes, did not silence gene expression, and did not induce Stat1 or Cox‐2. The results show that, in astroglia, lipid‐siRNA induces innate immune responses that are mediated, at least in part, by intracellular mechanism dependent on TLR7, TLR3, and helicases.

Searching for ways to upregulate GLUT4 glucose transporter expression in muscle.

1. Skeletal muscle is a major glucose-utilizing tissue in the absorptive state and alterations in muscle insulin-stimulated glucose uptake lead to derangements in whole body glucose disposal. 2. Furthermore, muscle GLUT4 overexpression in transgenic animals ameliorates insulin resistance associated with obesity or diabetes, which suggests that increasing GLUT4 in muscle by pharmacological intervention may be an effective therapy in insulin-resistant states. 3. This highlights the importance of understanding the pathways that upregulate GLUT4 glucose transporter expression in muscle. 4. We review studies describing the regulation of GLUT4 and the information currently available on the mechanisms that control GLUT4 expression in muscle.

Extended Ischemia Prevents HIF1α Degradation at Reoxygenation by Impairing Prolyl-hydroxylation ROLE OF KREBS CYCLE METABOLITES

Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) is a heterodimeric transcription factor that activates the cellular response to hypoxia. The HIF1α subunit is constantly synthesized and degraded under normoxia, but degradation is rapidly inhibited when oxygen levels drop. Oxygen-dependent hydroxylation by prolyl-4-hydroxylases (PHD) mediates HIF1α proteasome degradation. Brain ischemia limits the availability not only of oxygen but also of glucose. We hypothesized that this circumstance could have a modulating effect on HIF. We assessed the separate involvement of oxygen and glucose in HIF1α regulation in differentiated neuroblastoma cells subjected to ischemia. We report higher transcriptional activity and HIF1α expression under oxygen deprivation in the presence of glucose (OD), than in its absence (oxygen and glucose deprivation, OGD). Unexpectedly, HIF1α was not degraded at reoxygenation after an episode of OGD. This was not due to impairment of proteasome function, but was associated with lower HIF1α hydroxylation. Krebs cycle metabolites fumarate and succinate are known inhibitors of PHD, while α-ketoglutarate is a co-substrate of the reaction. Lack of HIF1α degradation in the presence of oxygen was accompanied by a very low α-ketoglutarate/fumarate ratio. Furthermore, treatment with a fumarate analogue prevented HIF1α degradation under normoxia. In all, our data suggest that postischemic metabolic alterations in Krebs cycle metabolites impair HIF1α degradation in the presence of oxygen by decreasing its hydroxylation, and highlight the involvement of metabolic pathways in HIF1α regulation besides the well known effects of oxygen.

Glucose promotes caspase-dependent delayed cell death after a transient episode of oxygen and glucose deprivation in SH-SY5Y cells.

Brain ischemia causes neuronal cell death by several mechanisms involving necrotic and apoptotic processes. The contributions of each process depend on conditions such as the severity and duration of ischemia, and the availability of ATP. We examined whether glucose affected the development of apoptosis after transient ischemia, and whether this was sensitive to caspase inhibition. Retinoic acid‐differentiated SH‐SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells were subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation for 15 h followed by various periods of reoxygenation in either the presence or absence of glucose. Oxygen and glucose deprivation induced cell death in the hours following reoxygenation, as detected by propidium iodide staining. At the end of the period of oxygen and glucose deprivation, both cytochrome c and apoptosis‐inducing factor translocated from mitochondria to cytosol. Reoxygenation in the presence of glucose accelerated cell death, and enhanced caspase‐3 activity and apoptosis. The glucose‐dependent increase in apoptosis was prevented by treatment with the caspase inhibitor zVAD‐fmk, but not with calpeptin, a calpain inhibitor. Nevertheless, both zVAD‐fmk and calpeptin decreased cell death in the glucose‐treated group. ATP levels dropped dramatically after oxygen and glucose deprivation, but recovered steadily thereafter, and were significantly higher at 6 h of reoxygenation in the glucose‐treated group. This indicates that energy recovery may promote the glucose‐dependent cell death. We conclude that glucose favours the development of caspase‐dependent apoptosis during reoxygenation following oxygen and glucose deprivation.

Depressed Glucose Consumption at Reperfusion following Brain Ischemia does not Correlate with Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Development of Infarction: An in vivo Positron Emission Tomography Study

Glucose consumption is severely depressed in the ischemic core, whereas it is maintained or even increased in penumbral regions during ischemia. Conversely, glucose utilization is severely reduced early after reperfusion in spite that glucose and oxygen are available. Experimental studies suggest that glucose hypometabolism might be an early predictor of brain infarction. However, the relationship between early glucose hypometabolism with later development of infarction remains to be further studied in the same subjects. Here, glucose consumption was assessed in vivo by positron emission tomography (PET) with (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose ((18)F-FDG) in a rat model of ischemia/reperfusion. Perfusion was evaluated by PET with (13)NH(3) during and after 2-hour (h) middle cerebral artery occlusion, and (18)F-FDG was given after 2h of reperfusion. Brain infarction was evaluated at 24h. Mitochondrial oxygen consumption was examined ex vivo using a biochemical method. Cortical (18)F-FDG uptake was reduced by 45% and 25% in the ischemic core and periphery, respectively. However, substantial alteration of mitochondrial respiration was not apparent until 24h, suggesting that mitochondria retained the ability to consume oxygen early after reperfusion. These results show reduced glucose use at early reperfusion in regions that will later develop infarction and, to a lesser extent, in adjacent regions. Depressed glucose metabolism in the ischemic core might be attributable to reduced metabolic requirement due to irreversible cellular injury. However, reduced glucose metabolism in peripheral regions suggests either an impairment of glycolysis or reduced glucose demand. Thus, our study supports that glycolytic depression early after reperfusion is not always related to subsequent development of infarction.

A plasmid toolkit for cloning chimeric cDNAs encoding customized fusion proteins into any Gateway destination expression vector

BackgroundValuable clone collections encoding the complete ORFeomes for some model organisms have been constructed following the completion of their genome sequencing projects. These libraries are based on Gateway cloning technology, which facilitates the study of protein function by simplifying the subcloning of open reading frames (ORF) into any suitable destination vector. The expression of proteins of interest as fusions with functional modules is a frequent approach in their initial functional characterization. A limited number of Gateway destination expression vectors allow the construction of fusion proteins from ORFeome-derived sequences, but they are restricted to the possibilities offered by their inbuilt functional modules and their pre-defined model organism-specificity. Thus, the availability of cloning systems that overcome these limitations would be highly advantageous.ResultsWe present a versatile cloning toolkit for constructing fully-customizable three-part fusion proteins based on the MultiSite Gateway cloning system. The fusion protein components are encoded in the three plasmids integral to the kit. These can recombine with any purposely-engineered destination vector that uses a heterologous promoter external to the Gateway cassette, leading to the in-frame cloning of an ORF of interest flanked by two functional modules. In contrast to previous systems, a third part becomes available for peptide-encoding as it no longer needs to contain a promoter, resulting in an increased number of possible fusion combinations. We have constructed the kit’s component plasmids and demonstrate its functionality by providing proof-of-principle data on the expression of prototype fluorescent fusions in transiently-transfected cells.ConclusionsWe have developed a toolkit for creating fusion proteins with customized N- and C-term modules from Gateway entry clones encoding ORFs of interest. Importantly, our method allows entry clones obtained from ORFeome collections to be used without prior modifications. Using this technology, any existing Gateway destination expression vector with its model-specific properties could be easily adapted for expressing fusion proteins.

Dual-reporter in vivo imaging of transient and inducible heat-shock promoter activation

Gene promoter activity can be studied in vivo by molecular imaging methods using reporter gene technology. Transcription of the reporter and the reported genes occurs simultaneously. However, imaging depends on reporter protein translation, stability, and cellular fate that may differ among the various proteins. A double transgenic mouse strain expressing the firefly luciferase (lucF) and fluorescent mPlum protein under the transcriptional control of the thermo-inducible heat-shock protein (Hspa1b) promoter was generated allowing to follow up the reporter proteins by different and complementary in vivo imaging technologies. These mice were used for in vivo imaging by bioluminescence and epi fluorescence reflectance imaging (BLI & FRI) and as a source of embryonic fibroblast (MEF) for in vitro approaches. LucF, mPlum and endogenous Hsp70 mRNAs were transcribed simultaneously. The increase in mRNA was transient, peaking at 3 h and then returning to the basal level about 6 h after the thermal stimulations. The bioluminescent signal was transient and initiated with a 3 h delay versus mRNA expression. The onset of mPlum fluorescence was more delayed, increasing slowly up to 30 h after heat-shock and remaining for several days. This mouse allows for both bioluminescence imaging (BLI) and fluorescence reflectance imaging (FRI) of Hsp70 promoter activation showing an early and transient lucF activity and a retrospective and persistent mPlum fluorescence. This transgenic mouse will allow following the transient local induction of Hsp-70 promoter beyond its induction time-frame and relate into subsequent dynamic biological effects of the heat-shock response.