Tomi Jaakkola

Effectiveness of learning objects in various instructional settings

Learning objects (LOs), generally understood as digital learning resources shared and accessed through the Internet and reused in multiple learning contexts, have aroused enthusiasm in the field of educational technology. Although LOs offer many possibilities to change educational practices, there is a lack of empirical evidence on the effectiveness and usefulness of LOs. This paper reports results from three studies on effectiveness of LOs in various instructional settings. According to the results, there exists interaction between the effectiveness of LOs and various instructional arrangements. In order to be effective LOs require carefully designed learning environments and instructional arrangements. LOs themselves do not guarantee high‐quality learning performance and meaningful learning activities. It is the context of use together with instructional arrangements that defines the pedagogical value of LOs.

Promises and pitfalls of learning objects

Learning objects (LOs), generally understood as digital learning resources shared through the Internet and reused in multiple learning contexts, have aroused worldwide enthusiasm in the field of educational technology during the last years. Although LOs and LO systems offer tremendous possibilities to improve educational practices, there are many theoretical problems and practical shortcomings which are usually neglected. In this article we introduce the promises of cost‐effectiveness, reusability, modifiability and adaptability associated with LOs. Then we critically look at the problems underlying the LO approach, and provide our own alternative interpretation of LOs as useful elements of meaningful learning environments. Because of their flexible nature, LOs and LO systems can be used to support a variety of learning theories and instructional strategies—both sophisticated and reductionist ones (Parrish, 2004). LOs per se are not necessarily pedagogically functional or non‐functional, but their pedagogical value is determined through their context of use. The implementation of LOs requires a sound pedagogical grounding, and we argue that only by using LOs according to the principles of contemporary learning theories can their promises be fulfilled.

The Influence of Achievement Goal Orientations and Task Concreteness on Situational Interest

This study investigated changes in elementary school students’ (n = 140) situational interest as a function of achievement goal orientation profiles and task characteristics. The authors repeatedly measured situational interest during a simulated science learning task in 2 task conditions that differed in the concreteness of the task elements. The authors identified 3 groups of students with different goal orientation profiles: success-, mastery-, and avoidance-oriented. Results of repeated-measures analysis of covariance showed that students with different profiles displayed different patterns of changes in situational interest in the 2 task conditions. The results confirmed the importance of acknowledging the interaction of student and task characteristics in the arousal and maintenance of situational interest across a learning task.

Number Navigation Game (NNG): Design Principles and Game Description

This chapter describes the Number Navigation Game (NNG), a game-based learning environment aimed at the promotion of flexibility and adaptivity with arithmetical problem solving in 10- to 13-year-old students. The game design is based on an integrated approach in which the different elements of the game are directly related to the mathematical content, i.e., the use of rich networks of numerical connections in solving arithmetic problems. The interface of the game is a hundred square superimposed on various maps of land and sea, where players have to strategically navigate a ship by using different combinations of numbers and arithmetic operations. The game has two different modes encouraging the use of different arithmetic operations and number combinations. The openness of the gameplay allows players the opportunities to explore different numerical connections in an environment where there are no right or wrong answers. Future directions of the game development include additional game features and extensions to larger numbers and rational numbers.

Voluntary vs Compulsory Playing Contexts

Background. Serious games are often used in formal school contexts, in which students’ lack of control over the playing situation may have repercussions on any motivational gains. Aims and Method. The first aim was to investigate to what extent n = 579 fifth grade students in Mexico who received a mathematics serious game played it voluntarily. Then, we explored how students who played voluntarily (n = 337) differed from those who did not by either gender or pre-test mathematical skills or motivation. The second aim was to find out whether two play contexts, the group of voluntary players and a second group consisting of students playing at school as a compulsory part of their regular mathematics lessons (n = 482), differed in game experience, game performance, and cognitive and motivational outcomes. Results. Students from the volunteer group who played had higher pre-test mathematical skills and math interest than those who did not play. Students in this group did not otherwise differ. Compared to students from the volunteer group who played, students in the school group played for longer, completed more tasks, and enjoyed playing the game more. However, their advanced mathematical skills did not improve as much. Conclusion. Motivation did not improve regardless of play context, suggesting serious games should be implemented for their learning content rather than because they are assumed to be motivating.

Number Navigation Game (NNG): Experience and Motivational Effects

Number Navigation Game-based learning environment (NNG) is a mathematical game-based learning environment designed to enhance students’ adaptivity with arithmetic problem solving and to increase their motivation towards math. Fourth through sixth grade classrooms were randomly assigned into either an experimental group (students n = 642) which played NNG during a 10-week period or into a control group (students n = 526) which continued with a traditional textbook-based mathematics curriculum. The aims of the present study were to investigate the effects of the intervention on students’ motivation and to explore how students’ differing game experiences were related to changes in their motivation and, as an indicator of cognitive outcomes, their arithmetic fluency. Results indicate the intervention resulted in small decreases in the math motivation expectancy-values of interest, utility, and attainment value. Students had mixed game experiences which varied by gender and grade level. When looking at the role of these game experiences on post-test motivation and arithmetic fluency, corresponding pre-test values were the strongest predictive variables. Out of game experiences, only competence was a significant predictor of post-test motivational scores; however, no game experience variable was a predictor of post-test arithmetic fluency.

Pedagogy in Educational Simulations and Games

Educational simulations and serious games hold great potential for creating engaging and productive learning environments in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) domains. In this paper, we present and reflect on some of our research findings from a series of studies on a computer simulation in the domain of electricity. These studies used the same simulation with varying instructional designs and over a range of grades. Interestingly, each design had a unique influence on either student performance or student engagement, or both. We hope our results can provide insight for designers producing simulations (or, serious games) for education and for educators utilizing these designs in practical settings.

Reflections from research: some considerations for the design of educational simulations (and games)

Educational simulations and serious games hold great potential for creating engaging and productive learning environments in STEM domains. In this paper we present and reflect on some of our research findings in a series of studies with a computer simulation in the domain electricity. These studies used the same simulation with varying instructional designs and over a range of grades. Interestingly, each design has always had a unique influence on student performance and/or engagement. We hope our results can provide some new insights for designers when designing simulations (or, serious games) for education and for educators utilizing these designs in practical settings.