Tomoya Yoshinari

Inhibitory effects of Satureja hortensis L. essential oil on growth and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus

In an effort to screen the essential oils of some Iranian medicinal plants for novel aflatoxin (AF) inhibitors, Satureja hortensis L. was found as a potent inhibitor of aflatoxins B1 (AFB1) and G1(AFG1) production by Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 2999. Fungal growth was also inhibited in a dose-dependent manner. Separation of the plant inhibitory substance(s) was achieved using initial fractionation of its effective part (leaf essential oil; LEO) by silica gel column chromatography and further separation by reverse phase-high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). These substances were finally identified as carvacrol and thymol, based on the interpretation of 1H and 13C NMR spectra. Microbioassay (MBA) on cell culture microplates contained potato-dextrose broth (PDB) medium (4 days at 28 degrees C) and subsequent analysis of cultures with HPLC technique revealed that both carvacrol and thymol were able to effectively inhibit fungal growth, AFB1 and AFG1 production in a dose-dependent manner at all two-fold concentrations from 0.041 to 1.32 mM. The IC50 values for growth inhibition were calculated as 0.79 and 0.86 mM for carvacrol and thymol, while for AFB1 and AFG1, it was reported as 0.50 and 0.06 mM for carvacrol and 0.69 and 0.55 mM for thymol. The results obtained in this study clearly show a new biological activity for S. hortensis L. as strong inhibition of aflatoxin production by A. parasiticus. Carvacrol and thymol, the effective constituents of S. hortensis L., may be useful to control aflatoxin contamination of susceptible crops in the field.

Active digestion of sperm mitochondrial DNA in single living sperm revealed by optical tweezers

In almost all eukaryotes, mitochondrial (mt) genes are transmitted to progeny mainly from the maternal parent. The most popular explanation for this phenomenon is simple dilution of paternal mtDNA, because the paternal gametes (sperm) are much smaller than maternal gametes (egg) and contribute a limited amount of mitochondria to the progeny. Recently, this simple explanation has been challenged in several reports that describe the active digestion of sperm mtDNA, down-regulation of mtDNA replication in sperm, and proteolysis of mitochondria triggered by ubiquitination. In this investigation, we visualized mt nucleoids in living sperm by using highly sensitive SYBR green I vital staining. The ability to visualize mt nucleoids allowed us to clarify that the elimination of sperm mtDNA upon fertilization is achieved through two steps: (i) gradual decrease of mt nucleoid numbers during spermatogenesis and (ii) rapid digestion of sperm mtDNA just after fertilization. One notable point is that the digestion of mtDNA is achieved before the complete destruction of mitochondrial structures, which may be necessary to avoid the diffusion and transmission of potentially deleterious sperm mtDNA to the progeny.

Dillapiol and Apiol as Specific Inhibitors of the Biosynthesis of Aflatoxin G1 in Aspergillus parasiticus

Dillapiol was isolated from the essential oil of dill as a specific inhibitor of aflatoxin G1 production. It inhibited aflatoxin G1 production by Aspergillus parasiticus with an IC50 value of 0.15 μM without inhibiting aflatoxin B1 production or fungal growth. Apiol and myristicin, congeners of dillapiol, showed similar activity with IC50 values of 0.24 and 3.5 μM, respectively.

Isolation and identification of precocenes and piperitone from essential oils as specific inhibitors of trichothecene production by Fusarium graminearum.

Inhibitors of deoxynivalenol production by Fusarium graminearum are useful for protecting crops from deoxynivalenol contamination. We isolated precocenes and piperitone from the essential oils of Matricaria recutita and Eucalyptus dives, respectively, as specific inhibitors of the production of 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, a biosynthetic precursor of deoxynivalenol. Precocenes I and II and piperitone inhibited 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol production by F. graminearum in a liquid culture with IC(50) values of 16.6, 1.2, and 306 microM, respectively, without inhibiting fungal growth. Precocene II also inhibited deoxynivalenol production by the fungus in a solid culture on rice with an IC(50) value of 2.0 ppm. Precocene II and piperitone decreased the mRNA levels of Tri4, Tri5, Tri6, and Tri10 encoding proteins required for deoxynivalenol biosynthesis.

Isolation of methyl syringate as a specific aflatoxin production inhibitor from the essential oil of Betula alba and aflatoxin production inhibitory activities of its related compounds.

Methyl syringate was isolated from the essential oil of Betula alba as an aflatoxin production inhibitor. It inhibited aflatoxin production of Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus with IC(50) values of 0.9 and 0.8 mM, respectively, without significantly inhibiting fungal growth. Methyl syringate reduced mRNA levels of genes (aflR, pksA, and omtB) [corrected] encoding proteins required for aflatoxin biosynthesis. Methyl gallate, methyl 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoate, and methyl 3-O-methylgallate inhibited both aflatoxin production and fungal growth of A. parasiticus and A. flavus. However, their acids and syringic acid did not inhibit aflatoxin production and growth of A. parasiticus significantly, although gallic acid inhibited aflatoxin production of A. flavus with selectivity. The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity of methyl syringate was much weaker than that of gallic acid. These results showed that methyl syringate has a unique inhibitory activity toward aflatoxin production with a different mode of action from that of gallic acid.

Structural determination of a nivalenol glucoside and development of an analytical method for the simultaneous determination of nivalenol and deoxynivalenol, and their glucosides, in wheat.

Trichothecene mycotoxins such as nivalenol and deoxynivalenol frequently contaminate foodstuffs. Recently, several trichothecene glucosides have been found in trichothecene-contaminated foods, and information about their chemistry, toxicity, and occurrence is required. In this study, a glucoside of nivalenol was isolated from nivalenol-contaminated wheat and was identified as nivalenol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside. Analytical methods using a multifunctional column or an immunoaffinity column have been developed for the simultaneous determination of nivalenol, nivalenol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, deoxynivalenol, and deoxynivalenol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside in wheat. The methods were validated in a single laboratory, and recovery from wheat samples spiked at four levels ranged between 86.4 and 103.5% for the immunoaffinity column cleanup. These mycotoxins in contaminated wheat samples were quantitated by the validated method. Nivalenol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside was detected in the nivalenol-contaminated wheat, and the percentage of nivalenol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside to nivalenol ranged from 12 to 27%. This result indicates that the analytical method developed in this study is useful for obtaining data concerning the state and level of food contamination by nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, and their glucosides.

Inhibitory activity of blasticidin A, a strong aflatoxin production inhibitor, on protein synthesis of yeast: selective inhibition of aflatoxin production by protein synthesis inhibitors

Blasticidin A (BcA), an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces, inhibits aflatoxin production without strong growth inhibition toward aflatoxin-producing fungi. During the course of our study on the mode of action of BcA by two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE), we found a decrease in the abundances of ribosomal proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae after exposure to BcA. This phenomenon was also observed by treatment with blasticidin S (BcS) or cycloheximide. BcA inhibited protein synthesis in a galactose-induced expression system in S. cerevisiae similar to BcS and cycloheximide. BcS, but not cycloheximide, inhibited aflatoxin production in Aspergillus parasiticus without inhibition of fungal growth, similar to BcA. A decrease in the abundances of aflatoxin biosynthetic enzymes was observed in 2D-DIGE experiments with Aspergillus flavus after exposure to BcA or BcS. These results suggested that protein synthesis inhibitors are useful to control aflatoxin production.

Spiroethers of German chamomile inhibit production of aflatoxin G1 and trichothecene mycotoxin by inhibiting cytochrome P450 monooxygenases involved in their biosynthesis

The essential oil of German chamomile showed specific inhibition toward aflatoxin G(1) (AFG(1)) production, and (E)- and (Z)-spiroethers were isolated as the active compounds from the oil. The (E)- and (Z)-spiroethers inhibited AFG(1) production of Aspergillus parasiticus with inhibitory concentration 50% (IC(50)) values of 2.8 and 20.8 microM, respectively, without inhibiting fungal growth. Results of an O-methylsterigmatocystin (OMST) conversion study indicated that the spiroethers specifically inhibited the OMST to AFG(1) pathway. A cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, CYPA, is known as an essential enzyme for this pathway. Because CYPA has homology with TRI4, a key enzyme catalyzing early steps in the biosynthesis of trichothecenes, the inhibitory actions of the two spiroethers against TRI4 reactions and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON) production were tested. (E)- and (Z)-spiroethers inhibited the enzymatic activity of TRI4 dose-dependently and interfered with 3-ADON production by Fusarium graminearum, with IC(50) values of 27.1 and 103 microM, respectively. Our results suggest that the spiroethers inhibited AFG(1) and 3-ADON production by inhibiting CYPA and TRI4, respectively.

Identification and Characterization of a New Enterotoxin Produced by Clostridium perfringens Isolated from Food Poisoning Outbreaks

There is a strain of Clostridium perfringens, W5052, which does not produce a known enterotoxin. We herein report that the strain W5052 expressed a homologue of the iota-like toxin components sa and sb of C. spiroforme, named Clostridium perfringens iota-like enterotoxin, CPILE-a and CPILE-b, respectively, based on the results of a genome sequencing analysis and a systematic protein screening. In the nicotinamide glyco-hydrolase (NADase) assay the hydrolysis activity was dose-dependently increased by the concentration of rCPILE-a, as judged by the mass spectrometry analysis. In addition, the actin monomer of the lysates of Vero and L929 cells were radiolabeled in the presence of [32P]NAD and rCPILE-a. These findings indicated that CPILE-a possesses ADP-ribosylation activity. The culture supernatant of W5052 facilitated the rounding and killing of Vero and L929 cells, but the rCPILE-a or a non-proteolyzed rCPILE-b did not. However, a trypsin-treated rCPILE-b did. Moreover, a mixture of rCPILE-a and the trypsin-treated rCPILE-b enhanced the cell rounding and killing activities, compared with that induced by the trypsin-treated rCPILE-b alone. The injection of the mixture of rCPILE-a and the trypsin-treated rCPILE-b into an ileum loop of rabbits evoked the swelling of the loop and accumulation of the fluid dose-dependently, suggesting that CPILE possesses enterotoxic activity. The evidence presented in this communication will facilitate the epidemiological, etiological, and toxicological studies of C. perfringens food poisoning, and also stimulate studies on the transfer of the toxins’ gene(s) among the Genus Clostridium.

Search for aflatoxin and trichothecene production inhibitors and analysis of their modes of action

Mycotoxin contamination of crops is a serious problem throughout the world because of its impact on human and animal health as well as economy. Inhibitors of mycotoxin production are useful not only for developing effective methods to prevent mycotoxin contamination, but also for investigating the molecular mechanisms of secondary metabolite production by fungi. We have been searching for mycotoxin production inhibitors among natural products and investigating their modes of action. In this article, we review aflatoxin and trichothecene production inhibitors, including our works on blasticidin S, methyl syringate, cyclo(l-Ala-l-Pro), respiration inhibitors, and precocene II.