Tony Eaude

Happiness, emotional well‐being and mental health – what has children’s spirituality to offer?

This article discusses the concepts of happiness, emotional well‐being and mental health in the light of recent work on children’s spirituality, to argue that such a consideration can help to avoid simplistic and individualistic views of each. Distinguishing between happiness as short‐term gratification and as longer‐term flourishing, the latter is presented as involving the search for meaning. Critiques of programmes designed to develop emotional well‐being are discussed. The reasons for patterns of emotional response are explored, including models of attachment and prior and present experience. The importance of adults being emotionally attuned to children to help build up the attributes associated with good mental health is emphasised. For happiness and emotional well‐being to be explicit ends in themselves, they would tend to promote introspection and a sense of vulnerability. They should be seen as by‐products of children flourishing as a result of sensitive relationships and the types of activities through which children’s resilience and sense of agency are reinforced.

Shining Lights in Unexpected Corners: New angles on young children's spiritual development

In this article I consider how an inclusive understanding of young childrens spiritual development can be enriched by research within the psychoanalytic tradition and cognitive psychology. I discuss difficulties of language and definition and suggest that thinking of spiritual experience as a type of experience rather than of spirituality or spiritual development may be helpful. Rather than working from a pre-determined definition, I argue that the meaning of spiritual experience is illuminated by considering a wide range of childrens maturational and developmental needs and considering the boundaries of what may coherently be included as spiritual experience. In exploring research within these two traditions I suggest the integration of the personality as an end-point of spiritual experience which avoids a linear, upward idea of spiritual development. Finally, I consider the implications for research, about spiritual experience itself and for children and their teachers.

Do young boys and girls have distinct and different approaches and needs in relation to spiritual development

Difficulties are outlined in how to consider whether boys and girls have distinctive approaches and needs in relation to spiritual development, especially the lack of any agreed definition of spiritual development and the nature of the research literature relating to gender. I explore this without presupposing, or excluding, any particular definition, arguing that, whatever ones assumptions and beliefs about spirituality, these influence, and are influenced by, assumptions and beliefs about gender, and vice versa. I present empirical evidence on aspects associated with personal well‐being indicating outcomes strongly differentiated by gender. I examine research evidence in relation to gender within a range of areas commonly associated with spirituality and highlight some gaps. I argue that considering spiritual development through the lens of gender and gender through that of spiritual development can illuminate ones understanding of both concepts. I suggest some possible implications for future researc...Difficulties are outlined in how to consider whether boys and girls have distinctive approaches and needs in relation to spiritual development, especially the lack of any agreed definition of spiritual development and the nature of the research literature relating to gender. I explore this without presupposing, or excluding, any particular definition, arguing that, whatever ones assumptions and beliefs about spirituality, these influence, and are influenced by, assumptions and beliefs about gender, and vice versa. I present empirical evidence on aspects associated with personal well‐being indicating outcomes strongly differentiated by gender. I examine research evidence in relation to gender within a range of areas commonly associated with spirituality and highlight some gaps. I argue that considering spiritual development through the lens of gender and gender through that of spiritual development can illuminate ones understanding of both concepts. I suggest some possible implications for future research and for teachers of young children.

What makes primary classteachers special? Exploring the features of expertise in the primary classroom

This article explores the nature of teacher expertise in the primary school classroom, drawing on theoretical models of expertise and of teaching expertise. It challenges simplistic models of an ‘outstanding’ or ‘master’ teacher to argue that since teacher expertise is both situated and prototypical, it is manifested in different ways according to context and the individual. The complexity and contingency of the primary school classroom means that the classteacher’s expertise must be multi-faceted to enable appropriate responses to events and match between learners’ needs and teachers’ knowledge. Such expertise is conceptualised in terms of domain, craft and personal/interpersonal knowledge, with the last of these especially important in the primary classroom, and domain not equated with subject knowledge. This leads to a preliminary typology of what distinguishes the primary school classteacher with a high level of expertise. The conclusion considers possible implications for research, emphasising the need for detailed, collaborative empirical work and academic and professional discourse, considering in greater depth the nature of expertise of teachers working with young children, especially in the classroom.

Statements of values in a time of uncertainty

Of significance in the context of this Journal was that Fundamental British Values are to be promoted as part of children’s spiritual, moral, social and cultural development (SMSC). Jackie stated that, while her immediate reaction was one of cynicism and some disgust, when she looked carefully at the new revised definitions of SMSC, especially that of spiritual development, she was pleasantly surprised. She continued that the new definitions, especially that of spiritual development, reflect her values not just as a British person but as a democratic educationalist; and that this discussion needs to continue in our classrooms. The idea of Fundamental British Values, and the list presented, worries me considerably, though I agree that this discussion should continue, not only in classrooms, but more widely. I have three main concerns. First, adults and children tend not to see any list of values, especially when set out in policy, as matters of debate whereas the values identified, and what they entail, should always be open to discussion and disagreement. Second, the four listed are not distinctively British, a point made by other people from two very different perspectives: one that these values are human or universal, the other that this list would not be accepted by many people in England, given the cultural diversity that now exists, and that other parts of Britain – Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales – would identify a different set of values and, in some cases, have done so. Third, and most worryingly, the notion of these being fundamental British values may suggest that those who cannot sign up to (the official version of ) these are in some way not ‘one of us’ and so excluding them. In the current British context, this is particularly the case for Muslims; and may result in young people and adults being reluctant to raise controversial questions which need open and critical discussion because this sounds educationally and is likely to reduce the danger of young people being radicalised. This discussion raises important issues of national and cultural identity, but is relevant far beyond Britain or any single country. As Watson, de Souza, and Trousdale (2013) demonstrate, a less western-dominated, more global perspective on spirituality provides important new insights, though a great deal of further work remains to be done. All countries struggle with how to respond to difficult questions such as those related to migration, climate change and tax evasion, in a globalised, increasingly fragmented world where national boundaries and traditional assumptions are more fluid than previously. The response in many European countries to those fleeing persecution has become increasingly hostile, with little recognition in the media that other, poorer countries, including Pakistan, Lebanon and Turkey, have borne a much greater burden for many years. While attention in Europe has focused on attacks in Paris and Brussels, it is easy to forget that, terrible as such attacks are, similar atrocities happen regularly elsewhere in the world. Actions which seem exclusive to most of us and even barbarous are frequently justified on the

Creating hospitable space to nurture children’s spirituality-possibilities and dilemmas associated with power

This article considers the idea of hospitable space and raises questions about what this entails in nurturing children’s spirituality in both religious and non-religious contexts. In particular, dilemmas associated with the use and abuse of adult power and authority and systemic forms of power are explored. It is argued that hospitable space is open, inclusive and reciprocal, with mutual learning. Adults must help to set the boundaries within which open exploration can take place, empowering children without overcontrolling activities or outcomes or coercing children into particular responses. The difficulty of creating hospitable space and the dangers related to power and control, even in activities intended and widely perceived as benign, are illustrated in relation to play and school classrooms. Structural issues such as a demand for conformity and a culture of competition and pace militate against creating and sustaining hospitable space to nurture children’s spirituality. High-stakes assessment and accountability mechanisms make this especially difficult in formal school settings.

Fundamental British values? Possible implications for children’s spirituality

Abstract This article argues that the statement of fundamental British values, as introduced in England’s education system in the period 2012–2014, is problematic, not least in relation to children’s spirituality. The context of the introduction of fundamental British values is outlined. The values chosen are more contested than they may seem, being neither fundamental nor distinctively British. How the idea has been conceptualised and implemented has adverse consequences for children’s understanding of identity, especially for some already marginalised groups, and may encourage a limited, superficial view of spiritual, moral, social and cultural development. This risks excluding some groups, especially Muslims, in the current political context, and discouraging open discussion in schools of controversial topics, when such discussion helps to reduce the danger of radicalisation. Consideration of the impact of statements of values, however apparently uncontroversial, must take account of the power of those formulating such statements and the wider context.

Why focus on the primary humanities now

On seeing the theme of this issue, one may reasonably ask ‘why focus on the humanities at this time?’ Are there not more urgent priorities in primary education, such as ensuring that all children can and do attend school, behave properly, learn to read and write fluently and acquire a sound grounding in mathematics; and that teachers are trained to deliver the curriculum efficiently and effectively? Certainly, these seem to be the main concerns of politicians, policy-makers and those who disburse funding for research. This initiative – a Special Edition of Education 3-13 focused on the teaching of the humanities in primary schools in the four parts of the United Kingdom – started with a series of discussions in 2013 between four academics and teacher educators based in Oxford, England. Two of us are geographers, one a historian and one interested in cross-curricular approaches, spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and primary classteacher expertise. We were all convinced of the importance of the humanities in helping children to understand themselves and the changing world in which they are growing up in the context of globalisation; and the uncertainties that accompany this. However, we were concerned at the current emphasis on propositional (content) knowledge for young children in the National Curriculum in England possibly at the expense of skills, procedures and values; and the lack of time and emphasis given in practice to anything other than literacy and numeracy. Indeed, one recent description of the attitude to the primary curriculum has been that the humanities, and the arts, are simply seen ‘as desirable but inessential’ (Alexander 2016, 2). The loss of curricular breadth and balance, especially in the final year of primary schooling when children and teachers are preparing for tests in literacy and numeracy, which often seem to take centre stage, was also troubling. Factors such as the influence of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and other international comparison tests in the home language, mathematics and in some cases science seem to have led to a greater emphasis on the ‘core subjects’ and the marginalisation of the humanities, and the arts, in most education systems. Initially, we were thinking of the humanities as the subject disciplines of History, Geography and Religious Education and possibly others such as citizenship. We soon discovered that there was a startling lack of information and research about these – specifically about how and how well they were taught, and by whom, in primary schools in England – even from inspection reports. As time went on, we came, slowly, to recognise that our assumption that the humanities should necessarily be conceptualised in this way might be too anglocentric. Contacts with colleagues in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales indicated that policy and practice were very different in these other jurisdictions of the United Kingdom; and our limited knowledge of other systems (for instance, in Canada and Australia) suggested that this was so elsewhere. We discussed the idea of ‘powerful’ disciplinary knowledge which has been debated in some humanities subjects, particularly in secondary education (see Young 2008; Young and Muller 2016). We considered the level of subject knowledge required by primary classroom teachers, in the light of the consistent findings (see, for instance, Catling and Morley 2013; Catling 2014; Carter 2015) about the importance of this and the relatively low levels of many primary teachers’ subject knowledge in History, Geography and Religious Education; and the need for pedagogical content knowledge as well as subject knowledge (see Eaude 2012). Linked to this was a concern at the reduced amount and quality of sustained professional development opportunities in Initial

The Future of the Humanities in Primary Schools--Reflections in Troubled Times.

ABSTRACT This article reflects on the implications for practitioners, researchers and policy-makers of the future of the humanities in primary schools in the light of the challenges facing future generations. There is wide divergence in the four jurisdictions of the UK. The humanities are perceived as important, in principle, though curriculum frameworks differ. However, the status of the humanities is often uncertain, in practice, given the current emphasis on outcomes in literacy and numeracy. There is a lack of robust research on how, and by whom, the humanities are taught. The more theoretical articles suggest that the humanities, broadly conceived, are an essential aspect of young children’s education – to enable a deeper understanding of human culture and identity, and to develop the qualities and values needed in a diverse world. Additionally, curricular breadth is required alongside a realisation that narrowly focusing on propositional knowledge is limiting. While this has implications for the whole curriculum, History, Geography and Religious Education have key roles in meeting these aims and in engaging and motivating young children. A stronger policy steer is called for, to ensure that schools give more priority to humanities education, with greater investment in professional development in Initial Teacher Education and beyond.

Humanities in the primary school – philosophical considerations

ABSTRACT Drawing on a range of philosophical traditions, this article argues that the humanities are essential aspects of the development of the whole child. The humanities help children to understand themselves and other people in relation to place, time, belief, identity and culture and to become empathetic, thoughtful and critical citizens. Learning the content, language, concepts, skills and ways of working associated with separate disciplines is important, as is exploration of key ideas related to human experience and culture, including controversial ones. Defining the humanities in the primary years by the types of knowledge, qualities and values involved may be more appropriate than by subject. These can be learned, and reinforced, in all subject areas, with some offering particularly fertile opportunities, and through cross-curricular approaches. An emphasis on factual knowledge is too limiting, with active, first-hand experience helping to engage and include children. To teach and demonstrate appropriate ways of working and thinking, teachers require pedagogical content knowledge and enthusiasm as well as subject knowledge.