Tonya L. Smith-Jackson

Research-based guidelines for warning design and evaluation

During the past two decades, the body of empirical research on warning design and evaluation has grown. Consequently, there are now basic principles and guidelines addressing warning design (e.g., signal words, color, symbols, and text/content), placement (e.g., location within product instructions), and how to enhance the usability of designs by considering factors internal to the user (e.g., beliefs, perceptions of risk, stress). Similarly, evaluation methods have been developed that can be used to measure the effectiveness of warnings such as the degree to which warnings are communicated to recipients and the degree to which they encourage or influence behavioral compliance. An overview of the empirical literature on warning guidelines and evaluation approaches is provided. Researchers, practitioners, and manufacturers can use these guidelines in various contexts to reduce the likelihood that injury and product damage from exposure to a hazard will occur.

Systematic evaluation methodology for cell phone user interfaces

As cell phones have expanded their functionality with enhanced mobile technology, use of cell phones has become complex. Although usability of cell phones has been improved by featuring hierarchical menu systems, designing comprehensible navigation in the menu hierarchy is still a major challenge to cell phone user interface (UI) developers as more diverse users are adopting cell phones. To develop an easy-to-use cell phone UI, an effective usability evaluation method (UE) is essential. While various usability evaluation methods (UEM) have been developed, laboratory-based usability testing produces high-quality usability data from actual users. Yet, the effectiveness of such testing can vary dramatically depending on what data is collected and how the data are analyzed. To provide a practical guidance for the effective laboratory testing, we developed a systematic evaluation methodology for cell phone user interfaces (SEM-CPU). SEM-CPU is specifically designed to integrate five empirical methods (scenario-based task performance, questionnaires, post-task interview, user observation, and retrospective think aloud) into a laboratory-based test in order to evaluate cell phone UIs. By following SEM-CPU, usability engineers should be able to (1) conduct laboratory-based testing with multiple empirical methods in an efficient way, (2) collect diverse but useful data to measure necessary usability attributes, (3) identify determinants of usability problems, and (4) integrate all usability data to generate proper solutions for the problems. Detailed descriptions of SEM-CPU are presented along with a case study where SEM-CPU was applied to a comparative cell phone usability test.

Effects of psychosocial and individual factors on physiological risk factors for upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders while typing

Psychosocial factors are hypothesized to contribute to work-related musculoskeletal disorder (WMSD) development, although previous research has been largely epidemiological or has focused primarily on the shoulders, back and neck. The objective of this study was to quantify the effects of mental workload and time pressure on perceived workload and physiological responses of the distal upper extremity. A total of 18 typists completed nine 5-min typing sessions representing three levels of time pressure and mental workload. Levels were manipulated by adjusting typing speed and by requiring participants to perform arithmetic tasks while typing. Outcomes were measured in muscle activation levels, wrist postures and movements, key strike force and subjective assessments of workload. In general, increased time pressure increased muscle activation, key strike force and wrist deviations; and increased mental workload increased key strike force. Mental workload and time pressure mediated physical risk factors during typing to increase WMSD risk for the distal upper extremity.

Accessible cell phone design: development and application of a needs analysis framework

Purpose: This research describes the development and use of the Needs Analysis and Requirements Acquisition (NARA) framework to elicit and construct user requirements for the design of cell phones (which are a type of assistive technology) that are both usable and accessible to persons with disabilities. Method: Semi-structured interviews and a focus group were used to elicit information and a systematic approach was used to translation information into requirements (construct). Elicitation and construction are the first two stages of NARA. Results: Requirements for general and feature-specific phone attributes were identified, and several requirements were found to match six of the seven universal design principles. Conclusions: The study demonstrated that NARA is both a straight-forward and cost-effective method to develop user requirements and can be used throughout the development cycle.

A heuristic checklist for an accessible smartphone interface design

Smartphone technology has evolved into a multi-functional device with advanced capabilities, but this mobile technology remains inaccessible to many individuals with visual impairments or upper extremity disabilities. This paper provides a heuristic checklist for accessible smartphone interface design, developed through reviewing existing design standards and guidelines and validating these guidelines with user involvement. Specifically, a set of preliminary user requirements (59 items) was extracted from existing standards, guidelines, and user requirements regarding mobile handheld device accessibility. Subsequently, the requirement set was filtered using a participatory method and then integrated to create an operational version of design guidelines. These guidelines were then used in a heuristic evaluation and usability testing on high-fidelity prototypes produced by a commercial manufacturer. A heuristic checklist for designing accessible smartphones was formed, which may also be applicable to other touchscreen handheld devices (e.g., printer screen) in terms of accessibility features. The initial set of 59 user requirements was re-organized into 44 statements in six general categories: mechanical controls, display, speech and general operation controls, audio feedback controls, touch-operated controls, and others. Using results from both qualitative and quantitative methods provides support, though with some limitations, for this accessibility checklist. This checklist is intended as a practical design support tool for use in early design phases of handheld products. A number of challenges and limitations are discussed as well.

The Effects of Print Format in Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertisements on Risk Knowledge and Preference*

This research examined the effects of format in print direct-to-consumer (DTC) prescription drug advertisements in communicating benefit and risks. Print advertisements for six fictitious drugs were created. Each drug was manipulated on the basis of six conditions, differing on the basis of color and the integration or separation of the benefit and risk information. A sixth condition (control) lacked risk information. Participants were presented with the DTC advertisements. Performance on a subsequent knowledge test of benefit and risk information was measured. Later participants were shown six advertisements of a single drug advertisement each representing the manipulations and were asked to rank them on perceived effectiveness of communicating drug benefits and risks. Results showed that the presence of physical features (eg, color) that distinguish the risk information from other text facilitated knowledge acquisition and increased perceived effectiveness ranks. Implications for the presentation of print risk information in advertisements are discussed.

Use of attitude congruence to identify safety interventions for small residential builders

The construction industry has experienced high numbers of occupational injuries and fatalities over the years. To address this issue, differences in safety attitudes and behaviours were explored among construction workers, first‐line supervisors, and project managers in small residential construction companies with respect to recommendations for safety interventions. A triangulation design consisting of observation (shadowing), subjective quantitative (questionnaire), and subjective qualitative (interview) methods was used to obtain different but complementary data on the same safety challenges. Shadowing was utilized to explore onsite safety problems and/or risky behaviours resulting from safety attitudinal discrepancies among the three groups. Questionnaires were administered to identify salient themes for the observed practices. Semi‐structured interviews were conducted to explore the causes of the observed safety problems. Results revealed that first‐line supervisors did not enforce safety rules strictly or consistently, and that significant differences in safety attitudes and risk perceptions were observed among the three groups. Results also support a tendency among subcontractors to practise risky behaviours, even though they generally articulated a desire to avoid injuries. The recommended interventions include holding regular safety meetings between managers and workers, implementing informal training to supplement formal training, and closely examining and reviewing the appropriateness of health and safety policies.

Users' Hazard Perceptions of Warning Components: An Examination of Colors and Symbols:

This study examined color and symbol hazard ratings among participants whose primary language was English and who were monolingual. Participants rated perceived hazards of ten ANSI safety colors and six symbols. RED, followed by YELLOW, BLACK, and ORANGE, were given the highest hazard ratings. The skull, prohibition (circle-slash), and the shock symbols produced the top three hazard ratings. The results of this study were compared to a previous study by Wogalter et al. (1997) which examined hazard ratings among participants whose primary language was Spanish. Comparisons supported general similarities between certain color and symbol hazard ratings among Spanish and English language users.

Elicitation of Haptic User Interface Needs of People with Low Vision

Various assistive technologies such as haptic technology are used to help people with visual impairments comprehend complex information. Yet there is likely to be a misconception that users with the same disability category share the same user interface needs; furthermore, the majority of the literature has been oriented toward total blindness rather than low vision, possibly leading to dissatisfaction with assistive technologies and discontinuation of its use by those with low vision. The aim of this article is to advance the understanding of the needs of those with low vision especially in relation to haptic-incorporated multimodal user interfaces. A scenario-based, participatory design approach was used to explore their needs. A total of 19 user needs were systematically documented under three categories: audition (n = 5), touch (n = 11), and vision (n = 3). This article focuses on qualitatively exploring their needs and theoretically interpreting the needs in the light of previous studies.

Applying Cultural Ergonomics/Human Factors to Safety Information Research

Cultural ergonomics/human factors (CE/HF) is an approach that considers situation- and trait-based variations among cultures. Several trait and environmental factors that vary by culture have been shown to influence risk perception, risk-taking behavior, and compliance as well as other processes and behaviors. When applying a CE/HF approach to safety information research, researchers should pay careful attention to the planning and implementation of research activities. This paper discusses methodologies, recruitment strategies, and issues to consider when designing research intended to yield cross-cultural application.