Tor F. Næsje

Parallel evolution of ecomorphological traits in the European whitefish Coregonus lavaretus (L.) species complex during postglacial times

The extensive phenotypic polymorphism in the European whitefish has triggered evolutionary research in order to disentangle mechanisms underlying diversification. To illuminate the ecological distinctiveness in polymorphic whitefish, and evaluate taxonomic designations, we studied nine Norwegian lakes in three watercourses, which each harboured pairs of divergent whitefish morphs. We compared the morphology and life history of these morphs, documented the extent of genetic differentiation between them, and contrasted the niche use of sympatric morphs along both the habitat and resource axes. In all cases, sympatric morphs differed in the number of gill rakers, a highly heritable trait related to trophic utilization. Individual growth rate, age and size at maturity, diet and habitat use also differed between morphs within lakes, but were remarkably similar across lakes within the same morph. Microsatellite analyses confirmed for all but one pair that sympatric morphs were significantly genetically different, and that similar morphs from different lakes likely have a polyphyletic origin. These results are most compatible with the process of parallel evolution through recurrent postglacial divergence into pelagic and benthic niches in each of these lakes. We propose that sparsely and densely rakered whitefish sympatric pairs may be a likely case of ecological speciation, mediated in oligotrophic lakes with few trophic competitors.

Evolutionary history of the European whitefish Coregonus lavaretus (L.) species complex as inferred from mtDNA phylogeography and gill‐raker numbers

We compared mitochondrial DNA and gill‐raker number variation in populations of the European whitefish Coregonus lavaretus (L.) species complex to illuminate their evolutionary history, and discuss mechanisms behind diversification. Using single‐strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) and sequencing 528 bp of combined parts of the cytochrome oxidase b (cyt b) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 3 (ND3) mithochondrial DNA (mtDNA) regions, we documented phylogeographic relationships among populations and phylogeny of mtDNA haplotypes. Demographic events behind geographical distribution of haplotypes were inferred using nested clade analysis (NCA) and mismatch distribution. Concordance between operational taxonomical groups, based on gill‐raker numbers, and mtDNA patterns was tested. Three major mtDNA clades were resolved in Europe: a North European clade from northwest Russia to Denmark, a Siberian clade from the Arctic Sea to southwest Norway, and a South European clade from Denmark to the European Alps, reflecting occupation in different glacial refugia. Demographic events inferred from NCA were isolation by distance, range expansion, and fragmentation. Mismatch analysis suggested that clades which colonized Fennoscandia and the Alps expanded in population size 24 500–5800 years before present, with minute female effective population sizes, implying small founder populations during colonization. Gill‐raker counts did not commensurate with hierarchical mtDNA clades, and poorly with haplotypes, suggesting recent origin of gill‐raker variation. Whitefish designations based on gill‐raker numbers were not associated with ancient clades. Lack of congruence in morphology and evolutionary lineages implies that the taxonomy of this species complex should be reconsidered.

Drift of Cisco and Whitefish Larvae in a Norwegian River

Abstract Larvae (eleutheroembryos) of cisco Coregonus albula and whitefish C. larvaretus started to drift downstream in the Gudbrandsdalslagen River concurrently with the beginning of the spring freshets each year, 1981–1983. The duration of yearly outdrift lasted 2–5 weeks in late April and May. The yearly maximum out-drift was positively correlated with the rate of increase in water discharge, but not with water temperature during spring. Most larvae drifted downstream during night.

Crossing Invisible Boundaries: the Effectiveness of the Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area as a Harvest Refuge for a Migratory Fish Species in South Africa

The application of no-take areas in fisheries remains controversial. Critics argue that many targeted species are too mobile to benefit from area protection and that no-take areas are only appropriate for resident species. The degree of protection does not depend on the size of the no-take area but rather on the time fish reside inside its boundaries during key life-history events (i.e., spawning) and during periods of peak fishing activity. We evaluated the potential of a small no-take marine protected area (MPA) inside a coastal embayment as a harvest refuge for a mobile, possibly migratory, long-lived fish species. We used acoustic telemetry to track movements of 30 transmitter-tagged white stumpnose (Rhabdosargus globiceps) across and on both sides of the boundary of a small (34 km(2)) no-take area over a full year. Being landlocked on 3 sides, the location of the MPA inside the lagoon made it practical to detect all boundary crossings and to calculate the time individual fish used the MPA. We detected frequent movements across the boundary, with strong seasonal and individual variations. There were significant differences in MPA use patterns between fish from different release areas. The time spent in the MPA by individual fish during summer (mean 50%; max 98%) was out of proportion with the size of that area (4% of total habitat). Summer coincided with peak recreational fishing activity and with the spawning season of this species. The small MPA provided a refuge for a part of the spawning stock of white stumpnose. Our findings suggest that if strategically placed, a small no-take area can be effective in protecting mobile species and that models of spillover from no-take areas should account for seasonal and individual variation in area use and the spatiotemporal distribution of fish and fishers.

Adaptive winter survival strategies: defended energy levels in juvenile Atlantic salmon along a latitudinal gradient

Current knowledge suggests that patterns of energy storage and depletion in animals are governed by behavioural trade-offs between risks associated with feeding and future energy demands. However, the length of adverse periods varies over geographical or climatic gradients. To explore the potential for genotypic sources of variation in behavioural trade-offs, we compared the winter energy-depletion patterns among 13 wild populations of juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) along a latitudinal gradient (58–70°N) and performed common-environment experiments of energy-state-dependent feeding. In the wild, winter lipid-depletion rates were lower for northern than for southern populations. The variation in spring lipid levels among the population was lower than autumn variation, with storage lipid levels clustered close to critical limits for survival. In semi-natural stream channels with natural food supply, hatchery-reared fish originating from northern populations showed a positive scaling of feeding activity with decreasing energy levels, whereas southern populations did not. In conclusion, juvenile Atlantic salmon from northern populations defend their energy levels more strongly than fish from southern populations. Adaptive variation in feeding activity appears important for this difference. Thus, the present study shows a link between geographical patterns in storage energy trajectories and adaptive differences in state-dependent feeding motivation.

An assessment of the size structure, distribution and behaviour of fish populations within a temporarily closed estuary using dual frequency identification sonar (DIDSON)

The fish populations within the East Kleinemonde Estuary, South Africa, were studied using Dual frequency IDentification SONar (DIDSON) during March 2010 which allowed for direct comparisons of the abundance, distribution and behaviour of a wide size range of fishes along the length of the system. Small schooling fishes <100 mm in total length (L(T) ) were most abundant while larger size classes 100-300 and 300-500 mm were less abundant, but evenly distributed longitudinally within the estuary. Fishes <100 mm were most abundant within the mouth region which may reflect the feeding ecology of species that fall into these size classes and the effects of higher turbidities further up the estuary. Large fishes >500 mm were similarly most abundant near the mouth, and fishes of this size being mostly piscivorous, probably showed these distribution patterns due to the location of smaller prey fishes. Differential behaviour was observed among the longitudinal sections, with small fishes forming schools in areas of low turbidity and particularly in the presence of large predatory fishes. Results from this study present a snap-shot of the composition, distribution and behaviour of the ichthyofauna within a small temporarily closed estuary, and also show that abiotic factors and interactions of various size classes can influence their distribution. There is significant potential for DIDSON in future ecological research within these systems.

Habitat use and diet of sympatric Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) and whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) in five lakes in southern Norway: not only interspecific population dominance?

Stable coexistence of Arctic charr and whitefish does occur in a number of native lake fish communities in Scandinavia. Even so, whitefish introductions into Arctic charr lakes have resulted in serious decline and possibly local extinction of Arctic charr. In this article, we analyze the habitat use and diet of the two species in five Norwegian lakes differing in basin shape and environmental conditions. In two of the lakes, both species are native, and appear to live in a relatively stable coexistence. Here, whitefish mainly occupy the littoral and upper pelagic zone, while Arctic charr live in the deeper habitats. Diets are generally quite different in terms of the zooplankton species eaten. In the three other lakes, either whitefish or both species have been introduced. In the shallowest lake, habitat segregation is similar to that seen in the pristine lakes, although Arctic charr appears to be on the brink of extinction. In the remaining two lakes, however, Arctic charr dominates, and occurs in higher numbers than whitefish in all the habitats. Our observations indicate that coexistence of the two species in oligotrophic and relatively pristine lakes requires an extensive profundal zone to serve as a refugium for Arctic charr. If the littoral zone is rendered inaccessible or unprofitable for whitefish due to dominance of a third competitor or predator, or as a result of lake regulation, then Arctic charr may be the dominant species.

Long-term effects of two sizes of surgically implanted acoustic transmitters on a predatory marine fish (Pomatomus saltatrix)

Fish telemetry is increasingly used to study fish behaviour in marine systems and it is crucial that the tagging does not affect fish behaviour and welfare negatively. Hence, the long-term effects of surgically implanted acoustic telemetry transmitters on survival, tag retention, healing and growth on Pomatomus saltatrix (known as tailor in Australia, elf in South Africa and bluefish in North America) were studied over 144 days. P. saltatrix are well suited for transmitter implants because no tagging-related short- or long-term mortality or transmitter expulsion was recorded. Small transmitters (9 × 28 mm, 3.3 g in water) did not affect the specific growth rate of tagged fish compared with an untagged control group. In contrast, the fish tagged with large transmitters (13 × 50 mm, 6.9 g in water) had a reduced specific growth rate. The small, but not the large transmitter, seemed suitable for tagging P. saltatrix of the body sizes represented in this study (215–621 g). The specific growth rate was negatively affected by increasing the transmitter-mass-in-water to body-mass ratio. It is recommended that this ratio should not exceed 1.4%.

Quantifying the degree of protection afforded by a no-take marine reserve on an exploited shark

Sharks have been shown to benefit from the protection of marine protected areas (MPAs). There is, however, little information on the degree of protection by MPAs to shark populations. The movements of individual smoothhound sharks Mustelus mustelus in, and adjacent to, a small (34 km2) no-take MPA (Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area; LMPA) situated on the west coast of South Africa were investigated over two years using acoustic telemetry. Sharks spent the majority of the time (in hours, average 79%) inside the reserve, and some sharks (n = 2 of 15 recorded during a full year) did not leave the reserve during the study period. Time spent inside the LMPA and the number of crossings of its boundary were strongly influenced by season. Sharks concentrated inside the LMPA during summer, whereas they were widely distributed throughout the study area during winter. Six sharks left the Saldanha Bay embayment during spring and winter for durations ranging from two to 156 days (median = 111 days). All returned to the bay within the study period. Individuals recorded over two years showed consistency in behavioural patterns and protection by the LMPA between years, and spent an average of 74% and 80% of the time inside the LMPA during the two study years respectively. The extended residency of smoothhound sharks within the LMPA suggests that no-take area protection may be a viable management option.

Gene flow from domesticated escapes alters the life history of wild Atlantic salmon

Interbreeding between domesticated and wild animals occurs in several species. This gene flow has long been anticipated to induce genetic changes in life-history traits of wild populations, thereby influencing population dynamics and viability. Here, we show that individuals with high levels of introgression (domesticated ancestry) have altered age and size at maturation in 62 wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar populations, including seven ancestral populations to breeding lines of the domesticated salmon. This study documents widespread changes to life-history traits in wild animal populations following gene flow from selectively bred, domesticated conspecifics. The continued high abundance of escaped, domesticated Atlantic salmon thus threatens wild Atlantic salmon populations by inducing genetic changes in fitness-related traits. Our results represent key evidence and a timely warning concerning the potential ecological impacts of the globally increasing use of domesticated animals.