Toru Ishihara

Improved executive functions in 6–12-year-old children following cognitively engaging tennis lessons

ABSTRACT The aim of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the relationships between cognitively engaging exercise (i.e., game-based and coordination exercises), executive functions (i.e., inhibitory control and working memory), and physical fitness. Forty junior tennis players (6–12 years old), who regularly participated in tennis lessons (2.55 years, SD = 1.61) prior to the study, were investigated. All participants completed evaluations of executive functions (inhibitory control and working memory) at rest. The duration of each lessons’ instructional activities, including coordination training, game-based exercise, rallying, and non-physical activity (explanations and breaks), was recorded. Physical fitness was evaluated using the Tennis Field Test. A longer duration of game-based exercise was positively correlated with inhibitory control and physical fitness. Coordination training was associated with improved working memory. Non-physical activity was inversely correlated with inhibitory control, working memory, and physical fitness. The results suggest that game-based tennis lessons have beneficial effects on inhibitory control and physical fitness levels, and a longer duration of coordination training is associated with better working memory. The present study indicates that shortened non-physical activity time within a sports setting is associated with the development of executive functions and physical fitness.

Direct and indirect relationships of physical fitness, weight status, and learning duration to academic performance in Japanese schoolchildren

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine, using structural equation modelling (SEM), the direct and indirect influence of daily behaviours (i.e. exercise/learning durations), weight status, and physical fitness on academic performance among seventh-grade schoolchildren, after controlling for socioeconomic status. We analysed cross-sectional data from 274 schoolchildren (159 males and 115 females; 12–13 years old). Academic performance was assessed using the total grade points in eight academic subjects. Physical fitness was evaluated using the total score of eight physical fitness tests and weight status using body mass index. The daily behaviours and socioeconomic status were assessed by the questionnaire. The SEM showed an adequate fit to the data (χ2 = 0.684, p = .710, RMSEA = .000). Physical fitness and learning durations had direct effects on academic performance (β = .301, p < .001; β = .132, p = .037, respectively) after controlling for confounders. Healthy weight status and exercise habits positively indirectly influenced academic performance via physical fitness. These findings suggest that, independent of socioeconomic status and learning durations, exercise habits and maintaining healthy weight status may indirectly contribute to academic success via better physical fitness in children.

Relationship of tennis play to executive function in children and adolescents

Abstract This study evaluated the association between the frequency of tennis play and executive function in children and adolescents. One hundred and six junior tennis players (6–15 years old) participated in this study. Executive function, including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility were evaluated at rest. Females showed better inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility than males. In males, more frequent tennis play was associated with higher basic processing speed and inhibitory control after controlling for age, gender, body mass index (BMI), and tennis experience. More frequent tennis play was associated with better working memory in both males and females after controlling for age, gender, BMI, and tennis experience. Furthermore, longer tennis experience was related to better cognitive flexibility in males after controlling for age, gender, BMI, and frequency of tennis play. These findings suggest that tennis play is associated with the development of three foundational aspects of executive function (i.e. inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility). Especially, frequent participation in tennis play is related to better inhibitory control and working memory, while longer experience of tennis play is associated with better cognitive flexibility. Although development of inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility is slower in males than in females, the associations between tennis play and inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility appear to be larger in males than in females.

The beneficial effects of game-based exercise using age-appropriate tennis lessons on the executive functions of 6–12-year-old children

This study evaluated the effects of two different types of tennis lessons-those involving a technique-based approach (TBA) and those involving a game-based approach (PLAY+STAY [P+S])-on the executive functions (EFs) of junior tennis players. Eighty-one tennis players (6-12 years old) were recruited and assigned to one of three groups: TBA, P+S, or watching TV (CONT). Subjects completed evaluations of EFs (inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) before and after 50min programs. The overall score for EFs improved significantly for both the P+S and TBA groups but not for the CONT group; indeed the CONT group showed no improvement in overall EFs. Furthermore, the overall EF score improved more for P+S participants than for those in TBA. Looking at components of EFs, the pattern for inhibitory control reflected the pattern for the overall EF index: Improvement in the P+S and TBA groups but not in the CONT group. Only the P+S group improved in working memory. Thus, playing tennis and practicing isolated tennis skills both improved EFs of junior players more than did watching TV, and game-based tennis lessons seem to hold more promise for improving EFs than drills of tennis skills.

Effects of tennis play on executive function in 6–11-year-old children: a 12-month longitudinal study

Abstract The present study aimed to assess the effects of 12 months of frequent tennis play on executive functions and the relationships of daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), physical competence, and enjoyment of playing tennis to executive functions in children. Thirty-two children (6–11 years old) who had regularly played tennis (once a week; mean = 3 years, range = 0–6 years) before the study were enrolled in a 12-month intervention. Participants were allocated into two groups: low-dose (maintain current frequency of tennis play, N = 19) or high-dose (increased frequency of tennis play to four times per week, N = 13). Participants’ MVPA, physical competence, enjoyment of playing tennis, and executive functions (i.e. inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) were evaluated before and after this intervention. The high-dose group demonstrated a greater improvement in working memory than the low-dose group, while there was no group difference in MVPA, physical competence, and enjoyment of playing tennis. Changes in MVPA were associated with improvements in cognitive flexibility. Changes in physical competence were associated with improvements in working memory and cognitive flexibility. Changes in the enjoyment of playing tennis were associated with improvements in inhibitory control. The current findings suggest that replacement of MVPA with sports activity, such as tennis enhances executive functions development, and suggest that sports programmes that seek to build competence and enjoyment might help support the development of executive functions in children.

Competitive achievement may be predicted by executive functions in junior tennis players: An 18-month follow-up study

ABSTRACT This study evaluates whether high levels of executive function predict competition results 18 months later in junior tennis players. Forty junior tennis players (20 girls, 20 boys; 9–15 years old) who regularly participate in prefecture tennis tournaments were recruited. All participants underwent executive function evaluations (the Design Fluency Task) in July 2015 and their prefecture junior rankings in August 2015 and February 2017 were recorded. As a result, after controlling for age and gender, the future ranking (February 2017) was significantly predicted by performance in the Design Fluency Task (β = -.30, p = .02; ΔR2 = .08), whereas the prediction for August 2015 rank as the baseline was not significant (β = -.19, p = .17; ΔR2 = .03). After controlling for age, gender, and ranking in the baseline, the change in ranking was significantly predicted by performance in the Design Fluency Task (β = -.14, p = .02; ΔR2 = .02). This suggests that childhood executive function may play a significant role in success later in life. This study highlights how executive function predicts future success in a specific sport; as such, supporting the development of executive function may contribute to higher competition results.