Toshiyuki Koyasu

TRPM1 is a component of the retinal ON bipolar cell transduction channel in the mGluR6 cascade

An essential step in intricate visual processing is the segregation of visual signals into ON and OFF pathways by retinal bipolar cells (BCs). Glutamate released from photoreceptors modulates the photoresponse of ON BCs via metabotropic glutamate receptor 6 (mGluR6) and G protein (Go) that regulates a cation channel. However, the cation channel has not yet been unequivocally identified. Here, we report a mouse TRPM1 long form (TRPM1-L) as the cation channel. We found that TRPM1-L localization is developmentally restricted to the dendritic tips of ON BCs in colocalization with mGluR6. TRPM1 null mutant mice completely lose the photoresponse of ON BCs but not that of OFF BCs. In the TRPM1-L-expressing cells, TRPM1-L functions as a constitutively active nonselective cation channel and its activity is negatively regulated by Go in the mGluR6 cascade. These results demonstrate that TRPM1-L is a component of the ON BC transduction channel downstream of mGluR6 in ON BCs.

Pikachurin, a dystroglycan ligand, is essential for photoreceptor ribbon synapse formation

Exquisitely precise synapse formation is crucial for the mammalian CNS to function correctly. Retinal photoreceptors transfer information to bipolar and horizontal cells at a specialized synapse, the ribbon synapse. We identified pikachurin, an extracellular matrix–like retinal protein, and observed that it localized to the synaptic cleft in the photoreceptor ribbon synapse. Pikachurin null-mutant mice showed improper apposition of the bipolar cell dendritic tips to the photoreceptor ribbon synapses, resulting in alterations in synaptic signal transmission and visual function. Pikachurin colocalized with both dystrophin and dystroglycan at the ribbon synapses. Furthermore, we observed direct biochemical interactions between pikachurin and dystroglycan. Together, our results identify pikachurin as a dystroglycan-interacting protein and demonstrate that it has an essential role in the precise interactions between the photoreceptor ribbon synapse and the bipolar dendrites. This may also advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the retinal electrophysiological abnormalities observed in muscular dystrophy patients.

miR-124a is required for hippocampal axogenesis and retinal cone survival through Lhx2 suppression

MicroRNA-124a (miR-124a) is the most abundant microRNA expressed in the vertebrate CNS. Despite past investigations into the role of miR-124a, inconsistent results have left the in vivo function of miR-124a unclear. We examined the in vivo function of miR-124a by targeted disruption of Rncr3 (retinal non-coding RNA 3), the dominant source of miR-124a. Rncr3−/− mice exhibited abnormalities in the CNS, including small brain size, axonal mis-sprouting of dentate gyrus granule cells and retinal cone cell death. We found that Lhx2 is an in vivo target mRNA of miR-124a. We also observed that LHX2 downregulation by miR-124a is required for the prevention of apoptosis in the developing retina and proper axonal development of hippocampal neurons. These results suggest that miR-124a is essential for the maturation and survival of dentate gyrus neurons and retinal cones, as it represses Lhx2 translation.

Negative regulation of ciliary length by ciliary male germ cell-associated kinase (Mak) is required for retinal photoreceptor survival

Cilia function as cell sensors in many organs, and their disorders are referred to as “ciliopathies.” Although ciliary components and transport machinery have been well studied, regulatory mechanisms of ciliary formation and maintenance are poorly understood. Here we show that male germ cell-associated kinase (Mak) regulates retinal photoreceptor ciliary length and subcompartmentalization. Mak was localized both in the connecting cilia and outer-segment axonemes of photoreceptor cells. In the Mak-null retina, photoreceptors exhibit elongated cilia and progressive degeneration. We observed accumulation of intraflagellar transport 88 (IFT88) and IFT57, expansion of kinesin family member 3A (Kif3a), and acetylated α-tubulin signals in the Mak-null photoreceptor cilia. We found abnormal rhodopsin accumulation in the Mak-null photoreceptor cell bodies at postnatal day 14. In addition, overexpression of retinitis pigmentosa 1 (RP1), a microtubule-associated protein localized in outer-segment axonemes, induced ciliary elongation, and Mak coexpression rescued excessive ciliary elongation by RP1. The RP1 N-terminal portion induces ciliary elongation and increased intensity of acetylated α-tubulin labeling in the cells and is phosphorylated by Mak. These results suggest that Mak is essential for the regulation of ciliary length and is required for the long-term survival of photoreceptors.

Presynaptic Dystroglycan–Pikachurin Complex Regulates the Proper Synaptic Connection between Retinal Photoreceptor and Bipolar Cells

Dystroglycan (DG) is a key component of the dystrophin–glycoprotein complex (DGC) at the neuromuscular junction postsynapse. In the mouse retina, the DGC is localized at the presynapse of photoreceptor cells, however, the function of presynaptic DGC is poorly understood. Here, we developed and analyzed retinal photoreceptor-specific DG conditional knock-out (DG CKO) mice. We found that the DG CKO retina showed a reduced amplitude and a prolonged implicit time of the ERG b-wave. Electron microscopic analysis revealed that bipolar dendrite invagination into the photoreceptor terminus is perturbed in the DG CKO retina. In the DG CKO retina, pikachurin, a DG ligand in the retina, is markedly decreased at photoreceptor synapses. Interestingly, in the Pikachurin−/− retina, the DG signal at the ribbon synaptic terminus was severely reduced, suggesting that pikachurin is required for the presynaptic accumulation of DG at the photoreceptor synaptic terminus, and conversely DG is required for pikachurin accumulation. Furthermore, we found that overexpression of pikachurin induces formation and clustering of a DG–pikachurin complex on the cell surface. The Laminin G repeats of pikachurin, which are critical for its oligomerization and interaction with DG, were essential for the clustering of the DG–pikachurin complex as well. These results suggest that oligomerization of pikachurin and its interaction with DG causes DG assembly on the synapse surface of the photoreceptor synaptic terminals. Our results reveal that the presynaptic interaction of pikachurin with DG at photoreceptor terminals is essential for both the formation of proper photoreceptor ribbon synaptic structures and normal retinal electrophysiology.

Recording Focal Macular Photopic Negative Response (PhNR) from Monkeys

PURPOSE To record the photopic negative response (PhNR) of the focal electroretinograms (ERGs) from the macula of monkeys and to study the properties of the focal macular PhNRs. METHODS Focal macular ERGs were recorded from five rhesus monkeys using a modified infrared fundus camera, in which a red stimulus spot on a blue illuminated background were incorporated. The effects of different stimulus intensities and durations presented on a steady blue background of 100 scot cd/m(2) on the focal macular PhNRs were investigated. Focal macular PhNRs were also recorded before and after an intravitreous injection of tetrodotoxin (TTX). RESULTS Focal ERG responses from a photocoagulated retinal site were recordable when the luminance of the red stimulus spot was <or=55 phot cd/m(2) and was presented on a steady blue background of 100 scot cd/m(2). The amplitude of the focal macular PhNR increased with increasing stimulus intensities and was larger than that of the b-wave at all stimulus intensities. The amplitude of the focal macular PhNR was largest at stimulus durations of 30 to 50 ms. An intravitreous injection of TTX essentially eliminated the focal macular PhNR. CONCLUSIONS It is possible to record focal macular PhNRs from monkeys by using a red stimulus spot on a blue background. Investigations of focal PhNRs can be a useful method of studying inner retinal function of local areas in normal and diseased retinas.

Tropisms of AAV for subretinal delivery to the neonatal mouse retina and its application for in vivo rescue of developmental photoreceptor disorders.

Background Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is well established as a vehicle for in vivo gene transfer into the mammalian retina. This virus is promising not only for gene therapy of retinal diseases, but also for in vivo functional analysis of retinal genes. Previous reports have shown that AAV can infect various cell types in the developing mouse retina. However, AAV tropism in the developing retina has not yet been examined in detail. Methodology/Principal Findings We subretinally delivered seven AAV serotypes (AAV2/1, 2/2, 2/5, 2/8, 2/9, 2/10, and 2/11) of AAV-CAG-mCherry into P0 mouse retinas, and quantitatively evaluated the tropisms of each serotype by its infecting degree in retinal cells. After subretinal injection of AAV into postnatal day 0 (P0) mouse retinas, various retinal cell types were efficiently transduced with different AAVs. Photoreceptor cells were efficiently transduced with AAV2/5. Retinal cells, except for bipolar and Müller glial cells, were efficiently transduced with AAV2/9. Horizontal and/or ganglion cells were efficiently transduced with AAV2/1, AAV2/2, AAV2/8, AAV2/9 and AAV2/10. To confirm the usefulness of AAV-mediated gene transfer into the P0 mouse retina, we performed AAV-mediated rescue of the Cone-rod homeobox gene knockout (Crx KO) mouse, which exhibits an outer segment formation defect, flat electroretinogram (ERG) responses, and photoreceptor degeneration. We injected an AAV expressing Crx under the control of the Crx 2kb promoter into the neonatal Crx KO retina. We showed that AAV mediated-Crx expression significantly decreased the abnormalities of the Crx KO retina. Conclusion/Significance In the current study, we report suitable AAV tropisms for delivery into the developing mouse retina. Using AAV2/5 in photoreceptor cells, we demonstrated the possibility of gene replacement for the developmental disorder and subsequent degeneration of retinal photoreceptors caused by the absence of Crx.

Supernormal ERG oscillatory potentials in transgenic rabbit with rhodopsin P347L mutation and retinal degeneration.

PURPOSE To determine the properties of the retina of a rhodopsin P347L transgenic (Tg) rabbit model of retinal degeneration by electroretinography (ERG). METHODS Full-field ERGs were recorded in 12- to 48-week-old wild-type (WT) and Tg rabbits. The a-wave was analyzed by the a-wave fitting model of Hood and Birch. The stimulus-response function of the b-wave was analyzed by the Michaelis-Menten equation. Oscillatory potentials (OPs) were extracted by digital filtering after subtracting the a-wave. OPs were also recorded before and after an intravitreal injection of l-2 amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid (APB), cis-2,3 piperidine dicarboxylic acid (PDA), gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), or tetrodotoxin citrate (TTX). RESULTS All the ERG components of Tg rabbits decreased progressively with age with the a-wave more affected than the b-wave, and the OPs were most preserved. Of interest, the summed OP amplitudes of the Tg rabbits were significantly larger than those of WT rabbits when they were 12 weeks of age. The changes in the amplitudes of the OPs after intravitreal injections of APB, PDA, or GABA in Tg rabbits did not differ significantly from those of WT rabbits. However, injection of TTX resulted in a significantly larger amplitude reduction of the OPs in Tg (65.3%) than in WT (28.6%) rabbits. CONCLUSIONS The significantly larger OPs in Tg rabbits resulted from alterations in the inner retinal neurons. The greater effect of TTX on the OP amplitudes in Tg rabbits suggests that the supernormal OPs in Tg rabbits may be related to secondary changes in the spiking neurons of the inner retina after photoreceptor degeneration.

Photopic Electroretinograms of mGluR6-Deficient Mice

Purpose: To study the properties of the photopic electroretinograms (ERGs) of the metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 6 (mGluR6)-deficient mice and to investigate the contribution of cone ON-and OFF-pathways to the mouse photopic ERGs. Methods: Photopic ERGs were recorded from mGluR6-deficient and wild-type mice. Photopic ERGs were also recorded after an intravitreous injection ofcis-2,3 piperidine dicarboxylic acid (PDA) to block the transmission of signals from the photoreceptors to the OFF-bipolar cells, horizontal cells, and other inner retinal neurons. Results:The amplitude of the b-wave of the photopic ERG was severely reduced in mGluR6-deficient mice, but a small, slow, positive component was seen after the a-wave. Intravitreous injection of PDA eliminated this positive component. Conclusions: The mGluR6-deficient mouse is a useful animal model to study the contribution of the ON-and OFF-pathways to the mouse ERG.

Gene expression analysis of embryonic photoreceptor precursor cells using BAC-Crx-EGFP transgenic mouse

Crx is a transcription factor which is predominantly expressed in developing and mature photoreceptor cells in the retina, and plays a crucial role in the terminal differentiation of both rods and cones. Crx is one of the earliest-expressed genes specifically in photoreceptor precursors, allowing us to trace photoreceptor precursor cells from embryonic stages to adult stage by visualizing Crx-expressing cells. In the current study, we generated a transgenic mouse line which expresses enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) in the retina driven by the Crx promoter using bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) transgenesis. EGFP-positive cells were observed in the presumptive photoreceptor layer in the retina at embryonic day 15.5 (E15.5), and continued to be expressed in developing and mature photoreceptor cells up to adult stage. We sorted EGFP-positive photoreceptor precursors at E17.5 using fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS), and subsequently performed microarray analysis of the FACS-sorted cells. We observed various photoreceptor genes, especially cone genes, are enriched in the EGFP-positive cells, indicating that embryonic cone photoreceptor precursors are enriched. In addition, we found that most of the EGFP-positive cells were post-mitotic cells. Thus, the transgenic line we established can serve as a useful tool to study both developing and mature photoreceptor cells, including embryonic cone precursors whose analysis has been difficult.