Tuula Aalto

CO2 surface fluxes at grid point scale estimated from a global 21 year reanalysis of atmospheric measurements

This paper documents a global Bayesian variational inversion of CO2 surface fluxes during the period 1988-2008. Weekly fluxes are estimated on a 3.75 degrees x 2.5 degrees (longitude-latitude) grid throughout the 21 years. The assimilated observations include 128 station records from three large data sets of surface CO2 mixing ratio measurements. A Monte Carlo approach rigorously quantifies the theoretical uncertainty of the inverted fluxes at various space and time scales, which is particularly important for proper interpretation of the inverted fluxes. Fluxes are evaluated indirectly against two independent CO2 vertical profile data sets constructed from aircraft measurements in the boundary layer and in the free troposphere. The skill of the inversion is evaluated by the improvement brought over a simple benchmark flux estimation based on the observed atmospheric growth rate. Our error analysis indicates that the carbon budget from the inversion should be more accurate than the a priori carbon budget by 20% to 60% for terrestrial fluxes aggregated at the scale of subcontinental regions in the Northern Hemisphere and over a year, but the inversion cannot clearly distinguish between the regional carbon budgets within a continent. On the basis of the independent observations, the inversion is seen to improve the fluxes compared to the benchmark: the atmospheric simulation of CO2 with the Bayesian inversion method is better by about 1 ppm than the benchmark in the free troposphere, despite possible systematic transport errors. The inversion achieves this improvement by changing the regional fluxes over land at the seasonal and at the interannual time scales. (Less)

Modeling 13C discrimination in tree rings

Annual variations from 1877 to 1995 in tree-ring α-cellulose 13C/12C isotopic ratios for four subarctic Pinus sylvestris trees were determined, and, in conjunction with a recent record of atmospheric 13CO2/12CO2 ratios, the historical pattern of photosynthetic isotope discrimination, Δ13C, was evaluated. Year-to-year variability in Δ13C has been as much as 1.5‰ with the period 1900–1920 showing an extended period of unusually high photosynthetic discriminations. The summers during these years were, on average, unusually cold. Since 1920 a long term trend of increasing Δ13C of ∼0.016‰yr−1 is inferred. We compared measured Δ13C with those predicted on the basis of the theoretical relationship between Δ13C and the ratio of substomatal to ambient CO2 concentration, Ci/Ca using mechanistic equations for chloroplast biochemistry coupled with a stomatal conductance model. Two variations of a nonlinear optimal-regulation stomatal conductance model were compared. Although both models were based on the assumption that stomata serve to minimize the average transpiration rate for a given average rate of CO2 assimilation, one version of the model incorporated reductions in stomatal conductance in response to recent increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations and the other did not. The CO2 sensitive stomatal model failed to describe the long-term increase in 13C discrimination, especially after 1950. The insensitive model gave good agreement, suggesting that an observed increase in subarctic Pinus sylvestris Δ13C since 1920 is attributable to recent increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations with subsequent increases in the ratio of substomatal to ambient CO2 concentrations. The model was also capable of accounting for high frequency (year-to-year) variations in Δ13C, these differences being attributable to year-to-year fluctuations in the average leaf-to-air vapor pressure difference affecting stomatal conductance and hence Ci/Ca.

Parametrization of two photosynthesis models at the canopy scale in a northern boreal Scots pine forest

In thiswork, eddy covariance data from a northern boreal Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stand were used in the parametrization of two up-scaled leaf-level photosynthesis models. The parametrization was carried out by eddy covariance data inversion. The biochemically based Farquhar model parameters, the maximum rate of electron transport (Jmax) and maximum rate of carboxylation [Vc(max)], were both obtained from the temperature responses measured by the eddy covariance. The semi-empirical model, based on optimizing water use and carbon gain, was parametrized according to the seasonal behaviour of the parameter β The parametrization of the models was performed for the year 2001, while 2002 was used as a test year to study the models’ capabilities. Both of the models tracked daily CO2 assimilation fairly well, reaching the high growing-season rates in mid-June and starting the autumn drawdown at the beginning of September. The incapability of the models to track the diminishing of CO2 fluxes during very dry days brings up the issue of combining a soil model into the canopy model. The biochemical model parameters have temperature responses that change during the growing season. The biochemical model responds more to the temperature, whereas the semi-empirical model is strongly driven by the light level.

A recent build‐up of atmospheric CO2 over Europe. Part 1: observed signals and possible explanations

We analysed interannual and decadal changes in the atmospheric CO2 concentration gradient (ΔCO2) between Europe and the Atlantic Ocean over the period 1995–2007. Fourteen measurement stations are used, with Mace-Head being used to define background conditions. The variability of ΔCO2 reflects fossil fuel emissions and natural sinks activity over Europe, as well as atmospheric transport variability. The mean ΔCO2 increased by 1–2 ppm at Eastern European stations (∼30% growth), between 1990–1995 and 2000–2005. This built up of CO2 over the continent is predominantly a winter signal. If the observed increase of ΔCO2 is explained by changes in ecosystem fluxes, a loss of about 0.46 Pg C per year would be required during 2000–2005. Even if severe droughts have impacted Western Europe in 2003 and 2005, a sustained CO2 loss of that magnitude is unlikely to be true.We sought alternative explanations for the observed CO2 build-up into transport changes and into regional redistribution of fossil fuel CO2 emissions. Boundary layer heights becoming shallower can only explain 32% of the variance of the signal. Regional changes of emissions may explain up to 27% of the build-up. More insights are given in the Aulagnier et al. companion paper.

Spring initiation and autumn cessation of boreal coniferous forest CO2 exchange assessed by meteorological and biological variables

We studied the commencement and finishing of the growing season using different air temperature indices, the surface albedo, the chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) and the carbon dioxide (CO2) tropospheric concentration, together with eddy covariance measurements of CO2 flux. We used CO2 flux data from four boreal coniferous forest sites covering a wide latitudinal range, and CO2 concentration measurements from Sammaltunturi in Pallas. The CO2 gas exchange was taken as the primary determinant for the growing season to which other methods were compared. Indices based on the cumulative temperature sum and the variation in daily mean temperature were successfully used for approximating the start and cessation of the growing season. The beginning of snow melt was a successful predictor of the onset of the growing season. The chlorophyll fluorescence parameter Fv/Fm and the CO2 concentration were good indicators of both the commencement and cessation of the growing season. By a derivative estimation method for the CO2 concentration, we were also able to capture the larger-scale spring recovery. The trends of the CO2 concentration and temperature indices at Pallas/Sammaltunturi were studied over an 11-yr time period, and a significant tendency towards an earlier spring was observed. This tendency was not observed at the other sites.

Tropospheric carbon dioxide concentrations at a northern boreal site in Finland: basic variations and source areas

Abstract Diurnal and annual variations of CO2, O3, SO2, black carbon and condensation nuclei and their source areas were studied by utilizing air parcel trajectories and tropospheric concentration measurements at a boreal GAW site in Pallas, Finland. The average growth trend of CO2 was about 2.5 ppm yr−1 according to a 4-yr measurement period starting in October 1996. The annual cycle of CO2 showed concentration difference of about 19 ppm between the summer minimum and winter maximum. The diurnal cycle was most pronounced during July and August. The variation between daily minimum and maximum was about 5 ppm. There was a diurnal cycle in aerosol concentrations during spring and summer. Diurnal variation in ozone concentrations was weak. According to trajectory analysis the site was equally affected by continental and marine air masses. During summer the contribution of continental air increased, although the southernmost influences decreased. During daytime in summer the source areas of CO2 were mainly located in the northern parts of the Central Europe, while during winter the sources were more evenly distributed. Ozone showed similar source areas during summer, while during winter, unlike CO2, high concentrations were observed in air arriving from the sea. Sulfur dioxide sources were more northern (Kola peninsula and further east) and CO2 sources west-weighted in comparison to sources of black carbon. Source areas of black carbon were similar to source areas of aerosols during winter. Aerosol source area distributions showed signs of marine sources during spring and summer.

Stable carbon isotope signatures of methane from a Finnish subarctic wetland

ABSTRACT Methane emissions from Lompolojänkkä, a Finnish aapa mire within the Arctic Circle, were studied by non-intrusive Keeling plot methods, to place better constraints on the seasonal variations in isotopic signature of methane (δ13CCH4) emitted from Arctic wetland. Air samples were collected in Tedlar bags over the wetland at heights of 42 and 280 cm between May and October 2009 and in August 2008. The mixing ratio and δ13C of the methane in the samples were incorporated into Keeling plot analyses to derive bulk δ13CCH4 signatures for the methane inputs to the air above the wetland. The results show an unexpected consistence in δ13CCH4 from early to late summer, clustered around −68.5±0.7‰, but during spring thaw and autumnal freezing, δ13CCH4 is enriched by approximately 2 and 4‰, respectively. The techniques reported in this paper are simple and economical to employ, and give a bulk source signature for the methane inputs to the air above the entire wetland that can be extrapolated to a larger regional area.

Optimal determination of the parameters controlling biospheric CO2 fluxes over europe using eddy covariance fluxes and satellite NDVI measurements

Ecosystem CO2 flux measurements using the eddy covariance method were compared with the biospheric CO2 exchange estimates of a regional scale atmospheric model. The model described the seasonal patterns quite well, but underestimated the amplitude of the fluxes, especially at the northern sites. Two model parameters, photosynthetic efficiency for light use and Q10 for soil respiration, were re-evaluated on a diurnal and seasonal basis using the results from flux measurements. In most cases the photosynthetic efficiency was higher than the earlier estimate. The resulting flux was very sensitive to the value of photosynthetic efficiency, while changes in Q10 did not have a significant effect.

Atmospheric transport of carbon dioxide to a baseline monitoring station in northern Finland

Interannual and seasonal variations in atmospheric transport to a baseline monitoring station at Pallas (67°58’N, 24°07’E) in northern Finland were examined. The transport was analysed through cluster analysis of three-dimensional 5-d back-trajectories during the period 1997–2003. The trajectory climatology shows that air mass advection from the north is most frequent—mostly at high wind speeds across the Arctic Basin and from northern Siberia—but during summer more stagnant flows from the Norwegian Sea are common as well. Western and Central Europe were found to be the second most important regions of influence for air arriving at Pallas, followed by atmospheric transport from west Russia and the Atlantic, respectively. The trajectory clusters were combined with measurements of carbon dioxide (CO2) in order to examine the linkage between atmospheric large-scale circulation and CO2concentration at Pallas. The Atlantic and Arctic air masses were associated with relatively small annual CO2 amplitudes at Pallas. In contrast, large concentration differences between the summer minimum and winter maximum were observed during periods of continental air mass transport from the south and the east. In particular the air masses originating from west Russia were associated with very low CO2 concentrations during summer, indicating high photosynthetic activity of the terrestrial biosphere in this region. We analysed how the vertical motion of the trajectories affects the observed CO2 at Pallas. The largest difference in CO2 concentration between air parcels moving at low and high altitudes, respectively, was found during air mass advection from Europe and west Russia. This was especially true during the winter months when large CO2 emissions in these areas, i.e. from fossil fuel combustion and the decomposition and respiration of the vegetation, in combination with stable stratification can give rise to very high CO2concentrations in air parcels transported close to the surface. The CO2 time-series from Pallas was compared with CO2 measurements made at the Mount Zeppelin station on Svalbard, illustrating the different characteristics—boreal and maritime, respectively—of the regions affecting the two monitoring sites.

Measurement of the 13C isotopic signature of methane emissions from northern European wetlands

Isotopic data provide powerful constraints on regional and global methane emissions and their source profiles. However, inverse modeling of spatially resolved methane flux is currently constrained by a lack of information on the variability of source isotopic signatures. In this study, isotopic signatures of emissions in the Fennoscandian Arctic have been determined in chambers over wetland, in the air 0.3 to 3 m above the wetland surface and by aircraft sampling from 100 m above wetlands up to the stratosphere. Overall, the methane flux to atmosphere has a coherent δ13C isotopic signature of −71 ± 1‰, measured in situ on the ground in wetlands. This is in close agreement with δ13C isotopic signatures of local and regional methane increments measured by aircraft campaigns flying through air masses containing elevated methane mole fractions. In contrast, results from wetlands in Canadian boreal forest farther south gave isotopic signatures of −67 ± 1‰. Wetland emissions dominate the local methane source measured over the European Arctic in summer. Chamber measurements demonstrate a highly variable methane flux and isotopic signature, but the results from air sampling within wetland areas show that emissions mix rapidly immediately above the wetland surface and methane emissions reaching the wider atmosphere do indeed have strongly coherent C isotope signatures. The study suggests that for boreal wetlands (>60°N) global and regional modeling can use an isotopic signature of −71‰ to apportion sources more accurately, but there is much need for further measurements over other wetlands regions to verify this.