U. S. Inan

Wave acceleration of electrons in the Van Allen radiation belts

The Van Allen radiation belts are two regions encircling the Earth in which energetic charged particles are trapped inside the Earths magnetic field. Their properties vary according to solar activity and they represent a hazard to satellites and humans in space. An important challenge has been to explain how the charged particles within these belts are accelerated to very high energies of several million electron volts. Here we show, on the basis of the analysis of a rare event where the outer radiation belt was depleted and then re-formed closer to the Earth, that the long established theory of acceleration by radial diffusion is inadequate; the electrons are accelerated more effectively by electromagnetic waves at frequencies of a few kilohertz. Wave acceleration can increase the electron flux by more than three orders of magnitude over the observed timescale of one to two days, more than sufficient to explain the new radiation belt. Wave acceleration could also be important for Jupiter, Saturn and other astrophysical objects with magnetic fields.

Sprites produced by quasi‐electrostatic heating and ionization in the lower ionosphere

Quasi-electrostatic (QE) fields that temporarily exist at high altitudes following the sudden removal (e.g., by a lightning discharge) of thundercloud charge at low altitudes lead to ambient electron heating (up to ∼5 eV average energy), ionization of neutrals, and excitation of optical emissions in the mesosphere/lower ionosphere. Model calculations predict the possibility of significant (several orders of magnitude) modification of the lower ionospheric conductivity in the form of depletions of electron density due to dissociative attachment to O2 molecules and/or in the form of enhancements of electron density due to breakdown ionization. Results indicate that the optical emission intensities of the 1st positive band of N2 corresponding to fast (∼ 1 ms) removal of 100–300 C of thundercloud charge from 10 km altitude are in good agreement with observations of the upper part (“head” and “hair” [Sentman et al., 1995]) of the sprites. The typical region of brightest optical emission has horizontal and vertical dimensions ∼10 km, centered at altitudes 70 km and is interpreted as the head of the sprite. The model also shows the formation of low intensity glow (“hair”) above this region due to the excitation of optical emissions at altitudes ∼ 85 km during ∼ 500 μs at the initial stage of the lightning discharge. Comparison of the optical emission intensities of the 1st and 2nd positive bands of N2, Meinel and 1st negative bands of , and 1st negative band of demonstrates that the 1st positive band of N2 is the dominating optical emission in the altitude range around ∼70 km, which accounts for the observed red color of sprites, in excellent agreement with recent spectroscopic observations of sprites. Results indicate that the optical emission levels are predominantly defined by the lightning discharge duration and the conductivity properties of the atmosphere/lower ionosphere (i.e., relaxation time of electric field in the conducting medium). The model demonstrates that for low ambient conductivities the lightning discharge duration can be significantly extended with no loss in production of optical emissions. The peak intensity of optical emissions is determined primarily by the value of the removed thundercloud charge and its altitude. The preexisting inhomogeneities in the mesospheric conductivity and the neutral density may contribute to the formation of a vertically striated fine structure of sprites and explain why sprites often repeatedly occur in the same place in the sky as well as their clustering. Comparison of the model results for different types of lightning discharges indicates that positive cloud to ground discharges lead to the largest electric fields and optical emissions at ionospheric altitudes since they are associated with the removal of larger amounts of charge from higher altitudes.

Observations of relativistic electron microbursts in association with VLF chorus

The Solar, Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX) satellite frequently observes relativistic (> 1 MeV) electron precipitation in the radiation belts at L shells of 4–6 with bursty temporal structure lasting < 1 s. This phenomenon can occur at all local times but is most often seen between 0200 and 1000 magnetic local time. VLF chorus is also observed to occur preferentially at these same local times. Using electron observations from the SAMPEX satellite Heavy Ion Large Telescope and data from the Polar satellite plasma wave instrument, we show correlation between observations of relativistic electron microbursts and VLF chorus with frequencies <2 kHz. In addition, the duration of the individual rising frequency chorus elements is comparable to the duration of the relativistic electron microbursts. It has been speculated that relativistic electron microbursts are caused by wave-particle interactions, which strongly scatter electrons into the loss cone for a short period. Lower-energy electron microbursts in the range from tens to hundreds of keV have long been associated with chorus waves, since these lower-energy electrons can resonate at the equator with whistler-mode waves at chorus frequencies. Electrons of MeV energies do not satisfy the first-order cyclotron resonance condition with chorus wave frequencies at the equator. However, MeV electrons may interact with chorus through higher-order resonances or off-equatorial interactions.

Electrical discharge from a thundercloud top to the lower ionosphere

For over a century, numerous undocumented reports have appeared about unusual large-scale luminous phenomena above thunderclouds and, more than 80 years ago, it was suggested that an electrical discharge could bridge the gap between a thundercloud and the upper atmosphere. Since then, two classes of vertically extensive optical flashes above thunderclouds have been identified—sprites and blue jets. Sprites initiate near the base of the ionosphere, develop very rapidly downwards at speeds which can exceed 107 m s-1 (ref. 15), and assume many different geometrical forms. In contrast, blue jets develop upwards from cloud tops at speeds of the order of 105 m s-1 and are characterized by a blue conical shape. But no experimental data related to sprites or blue jets have been reported which conclusively indicate that they establish a direct path of electrical contact between a thundercloud and the lower ionosphere. Here we report a video recording of a blue jet propagating upwards from a thundercloud to an altitude of about 70 km, taken at the Arecibo Observatory, Puerto Rico. Above an altitude of 42 km—normally the upper limit for blue jets and the lower terminal altitude for sprites—the flash exhibited some features normally observed in sprites. As we observed this phenomenon above a relatively small thunderstorm cell, we speculate that it may be common and therefore represent an unaccounted for component of the global electric circuit.

Spatial structure of sprites

A theory of the electrical breakdown (EB) above thunderstorms is developed. The streamer type of the EB is proposed for the explanation of recent observations of fine spatial structures and bursts of blue optical emissions associated with sprites.

Identification of sprites and elves with intensified video and broadband array photometry

Confusion in the interpretation of standard-speed video observations of optical flashes above intense cloud-to-ground lightning discharges has persisted for a number of years. New high-speed (3000 frames per second) image-intensified video recordings are used along with theoretical modeling to elucidate the optical signatures of elves and sprites. In particular, a brief diffuse flash sometimes observed to accompany or precede more structured sprites in standard-speed video is shown to be a normal component of sprite electrical breakdown and to be due entirely to the quasi-electrostatic thundercloud field (sprites), rather than the lightning electromagnetic pulse (elves). These “sprite halos” are expected to be produced by large charge moment changes occurring over relatively short timescales (∼1 ms), in accordance with their altitude extent of ∼70 to 85 km. The relatively short duration of this upper, diffuse component of sprites makes it difficult to detect and to discriminate from elves and Rayleigh-scattered light using normal-speed video systems. Modeled photometric array signatures of elves and sprites are contrasted and shown to be consistent with observations. Ionization in the diffuse portion of sprites may be a cause of VLF scattering phenomena known as early/fast VLF events.

Heating, ionization and upward discharges in the mesosphere due to intense quasi-electrostatic thundercloud fields

Quasi-electrostatic (QE) fields that temporarily exist at high altitudes following the sudden removal (e.g., by a lightning discharge) of thundercloud charge at low altitudes are found to significantly heat mesospheric electrons and produce ionization and light. The intensity, spatial extent, duration and spectra of optical emissions produced are consistent with the observed features of the Red Sprite type of upward discharges.

Heating and ionization of the lower ionosphere by lightning

Nighttime ionospheric electrons at 90–95 km altitude are found to be heated by a factor of 100–500 during the upward passage of short (< 100 μs) pulses of intense (5–20 V/m at 100 km distance) electromagnetic radiation from lightning. Heated electrons with average energy of 4–20 eV in turn produce secondary ionization, of up to 400 cm−3 at ∼95 km altitude in a single ionization cycle (∼3 μs). With the time constant of heating being 5–10 μs, a number of such ionization cycles can occur during a 50 μs, radiation pulse, leading to even higher density enhancements. This effect can account for previously reported observations of ‘early’ or ‘fast’ subionospheric VLF perturbations.

On the association of terrestrial gamma‐ray bursts with lightning and implications for sprites

Measurements of ELF/VLF radio atmospherics (sferics) at Palmer Station, Antarctica, provide evidence of active thunderstorms near the inferred source regions of two different gamma-ray bursts of terrestrial origin [Fishman et al., 1994]. In one case, a relatively intense sferic occurring within ±1.5 ms of the time of the gamma-ray burst provides the first indication of a direct association of this burst with a lightning discharge. This sferic and many others launched by positive cloud-to-ground (CG) discharges and observed at Palmer during the periods studied exhibit ‘slow tail’ waveforms, indicative of continuing currents in the causative lightning discharges. The slow tails of these sferics are similar to those of sferics originating in positive CG discharges that are associated with sprites.

Telescopic imaging of sprites

Telescopic images of sprites show a wide variety of generally vertical but also slanted fine structure, including branching tree-like shapes and well defined but isolated columns, with transverse spatial scales ranging from tens of meters to a few hundred meters at ∼60–85 km altitude. Simultaneous analysis of radio atmospheric and lightning data indicates that specific columnar regions are selectively excited by successive discharges.