Unathi Kolanisi

Subsistence Farmers’ Mycotoxin Contamination Awareness in the SADC Region: Implications on Millennium Development Goal 1, 4 and 6

Abstract In this paper, the authors have explored small holder farm households’ awareness regarding the possible effects of consuming fungal infected maize and discussed the implications of the former on the achievement of Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) 1, 4 and 6 in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The implications of climate change on mycotoxin contamination of staples in SADC have been discussed with special focus on Rungwe district, Tanzania and Makhatini area, South Africa. Data collected through interviewing 260 randomly selected small holder farm households in Rungwe district and secondary data for SADC region were used. Both, primary data collected from interviews and secondary data revealed that people used fungal infected staples for food, implying that people are not fully aware of health hazards associated with the ingestion of mycotoxins. Moroever, in the 2000s minimum temperatures increased by 2 - 7 °C and 3 - 8 °C in Rungwe and Makhatini, compared to 1979 and 1975 minimum temperatures, respectively. The existence of erratic rains across the SADC was also noted. It was concluded that current weather patterns propagate fungal infections and mycotoxin contamination of staples. This, together with farm households’ unawareness of mycotoxins threaten the achievement of MDGs 1, 4 & 6 in SADC. Education and training to raise awareness of SADC smallholder farmers and consumers on mycotoxins are recommended.

Effect of Amaranth addition on the nutritional composition and consumer acceptability of extruded provitamin A-biofortified maize snacks

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of adding Amaranth leaf powder on the nutrient content and consumer acceptability of extruded provitamin A-biofortified (PVA) maize snacks. Flours of four varieties of PVA maize were composited with Amaranth leaf powder at 0, 1 and 3% (w/w) substitution of, respectively, and extruded into snacks. The ash content of the snacks increased from 0.53 g/100 g-0.58 g/100 g to 0.650 g/100g-89 g/100 g and protein content increased from 9.12 g/100 g-10.94 g/100 g when Amaranth was increased from 0% to 3%. Similarly, lysine content increased from 0.10 g/100 g to 0.17 g/100 g, whilst methionine increased from 0.14 g/100 g to 0.19 g/100 g. The provitamin A content of the snacks ranged from 1.29 µg/g to 1.40 µg/g at 0% Amaranth and 1.54 µg/g to 1.78 µg/g at 3% Amaranth. The acceptability of the snacks decreased with increasing Amaranth concentration, only a very small proportion (2-8%) of the panel liked the snacks extremely. PVA maize with added Amaranth leaf powder has a potential for use in nutritious and healthy extruded snacks, but the consumer acceptability of the snacks should be improved.

Provitamin A retention and sensory acceptability of amahewu, a non‐alcoholic cereal‐based beverage made with provitamin A‐biofortified maize

BACKGROUND Vitamin A deficiency is a major public health problem in sub-Saharan Africa. Amahewu is a popular southern African lactic acid fermented non-alcoholic maize-based beverage, which is deficient in vitamin A. In this study, provitamin A retention and sensory acceptability of amahewu processed using provitamin A-biofortified maize and three types of inoculums during fermentation (malted maize, wheat bran and Lactobacillus starter culture) were investigated. RESULTS The total provitamin A content of amahewu samples, estimated as β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin and α-carotene content, ranged from 3.3 to 3.8 g kg(-1) (dry weight). Provitamin A was substantially retained (79- 90% β-carotene equivalent) in amahewu after fermentation. Amahewu samples prepared with added starter cultures had the lowest retention of provitamin A. Consumers (approx. 69%) liked provitamin A-biofortified amahewu either moderately or very much. Principal component analysis of amahewu sensory data showed that 71% of variation was due to maize types and 18% of variation could be due to the inoculum used during fermentation. Amahewu samples prepared using provitamin A-biofortified maize were slightly more liked (mean score: 7.0 ± 1.2) compared to those of white maize reference samples. The use of starter culture combined with either malted maize or wheat bran as inoculum during fermentation improved the taste and aroma of amahewu and hence its acceptability. CONCLUSION Provitamin A is substantially retained in amahewu after fermentation. The slightly high acceptability of amahewu prepared using provitamin A-biofortified maize compared to that of white maize thus suggests that fermented product like amahewu can potentially be used to deliver provitamin A to vulnerable individuals.

The Role of Property Rights on Rural Women’s Land Use Security and Household Food Security for Improved Livelihood in Limpopo Province

Abstract Small scale agriculture is a key land based activity for rural women, yet they own very little land. Rural land access is mediated by patrilineal customary law where women have mostly secondary property rights as wives. Consequently their land use security was derived from the family and other means of fostering accountability. As these have been lost with the developments in customary law, what is the source of women’s land use security? Three communities in Limpopo Province were selected purposively; data was collected using a questionnaire, focus group discussions, key informant interviews and observation. Data analysis was through descriptive analyses and content analysis. The results show gendered access land access and secure access for mostly married women. In spite of their insecurities, women are motivated to farm for household consumption. A framework that recognises women as land users and rural development is essential to strengthen women’s land use security.

An Assessment of the Food and Nutrition Security Status of Weaned 7–12 Months Old Children in Rural and Peri-Urban Communities of Gauteng and Limpopo Provinces, South Africa

This study assessed the food and nutrition security status of children receiving complementary food in rural and peri-urban communities. A group of 106 mothers from Lebowakgomo village and Hammanskraal Township, respectively, participated in the survey. Additionally, six focus group discussions were conducted per study area to assess the mothers’ perceptions about children’s food access. The Children’s Food Insecurity Access Scale (CFIAS) was used to assess the food security status (access) of the children. The Individual Dietary Diversity Score (IDDS) together with the unquantified food consumption frequency survey were used as a proxy measure of the nutritional quality of the children’s diets. The age and weight of the children obtained from the children’s clinic health cards were used to calculate Weight-for-Age Z scores (WAZ) in order to determine the prevalence of underweight children. The findings showed that a large percentage of children were severely food-insecure, 87% and 78%, in rural and peri-urban areas, respectively. Additionally, Lebowakgomo children (23.6%) and Hammanskraal children (17.9%) were severely underweight. Overall, children’s diets in both study areas was characterized by nutrient-deficient complementary foods. Cheaper foods with a longer stomach-filling effect such as white maize meal and sugar were the most commonly purchased and used. Hence, the children consumed very limited amounts of foods rich in proteins, minerals, and vitamins, which significantly increased the risk of their being malnourished.

Smallholder Farmer's Perceived Effects of Climate Change on Crop Production and Household Livelihoods in Rural Limpopo Province, South Africa

Abstract This study investigated the perceived effects of climate change on crop production and household livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Mopani and Vhembe district, South Africa. Data was collected through a questionnaire administered to 150 smallholder farmers. The questionnaires were complemented by 8 focus group discussions and secondary data. Multinomial logit regression model was used to analyse the factors influencing smallholder farmers’ choice of climate change adaptation strategies. The study findings revealed that subsistence farmers perceived prolonged droughts (56.4%) as the main shock stressing crop production. Droughts often lead to low crop yield and high crop failure (73.3%). In response to the prevailing climatic conditions different gender adopted different strategies, 41% of female farmers adapted by changing planting dates, while male farmers employed crop variety and diversification (35%) and mixed cropping (15%). The smallholder farmers were vulnerable with limited adaptive capacity to withstand climate change due to compromised social, human, physical, natural and financial assets. The results showed that smallholder farmers tend to adapt better when they have access to extension officers (P<0.01). Therefore, it is important for the government to strengthen the relationship between smallholder farmers and extension officers for better climate change adaptation.

Consumer Perceptions and Acceptability of Egg Powder as a Preservation Technique for Rural Household Food Security in Impendle, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Abstract The acceptability of egg powder to rural house-holds was investigated. A survey was conducted using 120 community members to assess egg utilisation. Sixty three of the survey participants evaluated the sensoryacceptability of a scrambled commercial egg powder compared to a fresh scrambled egg and also participated in acomplementary Focus Group Discussion. Egg-laying chickens were owned by 88% households. All the householdmembers consumed and valued eggs for their nutritional benefits, although, culture made egg consumption limitedfor girls and young women. Households largely used commercial eggs due to a limited availability of home-producedeggs, which were significantly lost through deterioration. Sensory analysis indicated that the egg powder was significantly (p<0.05) less acceptable relative to fresh egg due to its bad aroma, therefore it should be improved.However, the consumer panel reflected interest to explore the processing of egg powder indicating a potential forimproving rural household food security.

The Potential of Integrating Provitamin A-Biofortified Maize in Smallholder Farming Systems to Reduce Malnourishment in South Africa

Biofortification interventions have the potential to combat malnutrition. This review explored the use of provitamin A-biofortified maize (PVABM) as a vitamin A deficiency (VAD) reduction agricultural-based strategy. Maize has been identified as one of the key staple crops for biofortification to reduce hidden hunger in Africa. Most nutrition interventions have not been successful in reducing hunger because rural communities, who mainly rely on agriculture, have been indirectly excluded. The biofortification intervention proposed here aims to be an inclusive strategy, based on smallholder farming systems. Vitamin A is a micronutrient essential for growth, immune function, reproduction and vision, and its deficiency results in VAD. VAD is estimated to affect more than 250 million children in developing countries. In Africa, especially sub-Saharan Africa, maize is a staple food for rural communities, consumed by most household members. Due to carotenoids, PVABM presents an orange color. This color has been reported to lead to negative perceptions about PVABM varieties. The perceived agronomic traits of this maize by smallholder farmers have not been explored. Adoption and utilization of PVABM varieties relies on both acceptable consumer attributes and agronomic traits, including nutritional value. It is therefore important to assess farmers’ perceptions of and willingness to adopt the varieties, and the potential markets for PVABM maize. It is essential to establish on-farm trials and experiments to evaluate the response of PVABM under different climatic conditions, fertilizer levels and soils, and its overall agronomic potential. For the better integration of PVABM with smallholder farming systems, farmer training and workshops about PVABM should be part of any intervention. A holistic approach would enhance farmers’ knowledge about PVABM varieties and that their benefits out-compete other existing maize varieties.

Haematological and Serum Biochemical Responses of Ovambo Chickens Fed Provitamin A Biofortified Maize

The current study was conducted to investigate the influence of provitamin A biofortified maize (PABM) diet, sex and age of birds on the haematological and serum biochemistry parameters of indigenous chickens. A total of ninety-six 13 week old male and female Ovambo chickens were reared and fed on either white maize (WM) a low vitamin A diet or a PABM based diet for eight weeks. Each diet was replicated four times. Packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin (Hb), erythrocyte concentration (RBC), leucocytes concentration (WBC), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) were measured. Albumin (ALB), globulin (GLOB), total proteins (TP), triglycerides (TRI), cholesterol (CHOLES), uric acid (UA) and creatinine (CREAT) concentrations were assessed. The activity of alanine transaminase (ALT) alkaline phosphate (ALP) and aspartate transaminanse (AST) were also assayed. The PABM diet increased (p<0.05) PCV and WBC of female birds. All mean values for the haematological parameters regardless of the age, sex and diets were within the normal range. Age had an effect (p<0.05) on ALT, TP, GLOB, TRI and UA. Sex of the birds significantly influenced the TP, GLOB, ALB, CREAT and TRI levels. There was significant interaction of diet and age of bird on ALP, ALT, and GLOB concentrations. The cholesterol level in 18 weeks old male birds fed on the WM diet was above the normal range. In conclusion, feeding PABM diet to female and male indigenous chickens will not negatively impact on the health status of indigenous chickens.

The Multifaceted Nature of Food and Nutrition Insecurity in South Africa: Lessons Learnt from Conducting a Case Study of Malnourished Children on Nutrition Security Programme (NSP)

ABSTRACT A composite measurement to harmoniously capture all the pillars of food security has not yet been discovered. Food availability in sufficient quantities at all times does not necessarily mean nutrition security as compromised food quality may lead to malnutrition. This paper shows the multifaceted and complex nature of measuring food and nutrition insecurity of 136 caregivers and their children attending nutrition rehabilitation programme. A multi-measurement was used to assess food and nutrition security status. Although the children were part of a rehabilitation programme, only 63 percent of these children were successfully rehabilitated, 29 percent were wasted and 6 percent obese. Sustainable Developmental Goals (1: No poverty; 2: No hunger and 3: Good health and Well-being) are associated with the concern about obesity that is virtually an epidemic beyond achievement of the Millennium Developmental Goals. This study confirmed the complexity of food and nutrition insecurity as it extends to contextual social and behavioural issues. A proactive-holistic approach is required when planning future interventions, developing assessments and measuring systems.