Ushati Das

Mechanism of RNA 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate end healing by T4 polynucleotide kinase–phosphatase

T4 polynucleotide kinase–phosphatase (Pnkp) exemplifies a family of enzymes with 5′-kinase and 3′-phosphatase activities that function in nucleic acid repair. The polynucleotide 3′-phosphatase reaction is executed by the Pnkp C-terminal domain, which belongs to the DxDxT acylphosphatase superfamily. The 3′-phosphatase reaction entails formation and hydrolysis of a covalent enzyme-(Asp165)-phosphate intermediate, driven by general acid–base catalyst Asp167. We report that Pnkp also has RNA 2′-phosphatase activity that requires Asp165 and Asp167. The physiological substrate for Pnkp phosphatase is an RNA 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate end (RNA > p), but the pathway of cyclic phosphate removal and its enzymic requirements are undefined. Here we find that Pnkp reactivity with RNA > p requires Asp165, but not Asp167. Whereas wild-type Pnkp transforms RNA > p to RNAOH, mutant D167N converts RNA > p to RNA 3′-phosphate, which it sequesters in the phosphatase active site. In support of the intermediacy of an RNA phosphomonoester, the reaction of mutant S211A with RNA > p results in transient accumulation of RNAp en route to RNAOH. Our results suggest that healing of 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate ends is a four-step processive reaction: RNA > p + Pnkp → RNA-(3′-phosphoaspartyl)-Pnkp → RNA3′p + Pnkp → RNAOH + phosphoaspartyl-Pnkp → Pi + Pnkp.

Rewriting the rules for end joining via enzymatic splicing of DNA 3′-PO4 and 5′-OH ends

Significance The ability to repair breaks in the DNA phosphodiester backbone is essential for genome integrity. When breakage results in 5′-PO4 and 3′-OH termini, the ends can be rejoined to each other, or to novel partner strands, by classic DNA ligases that covalently activate the 5′-PO4 end by linkage to AMP. However, when breakage leaves 5′-OH and 3′-PO4 termini, the ends are considered “dirty” because they cannot be sealed by classic ligases. This paper shows that the unconventional ligase RtcB can evade the DNA dirty end chemistry problem by splicing DNA 3′-PO4 ends to DNA 5′-OH ends. RtcB accomplishes this by attaching a GMP nucleotide to the DNA 3′-PO4 end to activate it for nucleophilic attack by the 5′-OH. There are many biological contexts in which DNA damage generates “dirty” breaks with 3′-PO4 (or cyclic-PO4) and 5′-OH ends that cannot be sealed by DNA ligases. Here we show that the Escherichia coli RNA ligase RtcB can splice these dirty DNA ends via a unique chemical mechanism. RtcB transfers GMP from a covalent RtcB–GMP intermediate to a DNA 3′-PO4 to form a “capped” 3′ end structure, DNA3′pp5′G. When a suitable DNA 5′-OH end is available, RtcB catalyzes attack of the 5′-OH on DNA3′pp5′G to form a 3′–5′ phosphodiester splice junction. Our findings unveil an enzymatic capacity for DNA 3′ capping and the sealing of DNA breaks with 3′-PO4 and 5′-OH termini, with implications for DNA repair and DNA rearrangements.

Structures of bacterial polynucleotide kinase in a Michaelis complex with GTP•Mg2+ and 5′-OH oligonucleotide and a product complex with GDP•Mg2+ and 5′-PO4 oligonucleotide reveal a mechanism of general acid-base catalysis and the determinants of phosphoacceptor recognition

Clostridium thermocellum polynucleotide kinase (CthPnk), the 5′ end-healing module of a bacterial RNA repair system, catalyzes reversible phosphoryl transfer from an NTP donor to a 5′-OH polynucleotide acceptor. Here we report the crystal structures of CthPnk-D38N in a Michaelis complex with GTP•Mg2+ and a 5′-OH oligonucleotide and a product complex with GDP•Mg2+ and a 5′-PO4 oligonucleotide. The O5′ nucleophile is situated 3.0 Å from the GTP γ phosphorus in the Michaelis complex, where it is coordinated by Asn38 and is apical to the bridging β phosphate oxygen of the GDP leaving group. In the product complex, the transferred phosphate has undergone stereochemical inversion and Asn38 coordinates the 5′-bridging phosphate oxygen of the oligonucleotide. The D38N enzyme is poised for catalysis, but cannot execute because it lacks Asp38—hereby implicated as the essential general base catalyst that abstracts a proton from the 5′-OH during the kinase reaction. Asp38 serves as a general acid catalyst during the ‘reverse kinase’ reaction by donating a proton to the O5′ leaving group of the 5′-PO4 strand. The acceptor strand binding mode of CthPnk is distinct from that of bacteriophage T4 Pnk.

Impact of DNA3′pp5′G capping on repair reactions at DNA 3′ ends

Significance When DNA breakage results in a 3′-PO4 terminus, the end is considered “dirty” because it cannot prime repair synthesis by DNA polymerases or sealing by classic DNA ligases. This paper shows how the noncanonical ligase RtcB can evade the dirty end problem by transferring GMP to the DNA 3′-PO4 to form a DNA3′pp5′G cap. DNA capping blocks 3′ end-resection and healing, while permitting DNA synthesis from the cap guanosine–3′-OH primer by polymerases. Cap-primed synthesis embeds a pyrophosphate linkage in DNA. A 3′ decapping activity inherent in the disease-associated repair enzyme aprataxin suggests that DNA capping is a dynamic process. Many biological scenarios generate “dirty” DNA 3′-PO4 ends that cannot be sealed by classic DNA ligases or extended by DNA polymerases. The noncanonical ligase RtcB can “cap” these ends via a unique chemical mechanism entailing transfer of GMP from a covalent RtcB–GMP intermediate to a DNA 3′-PO4 to form DNA3′pp5′G. Here, we show that capping protects DNA 3′ ends from resection by Escherichia coli exonucleases I and III and from end-healing by T4 polynucleotide 3′ phosphatase. By contrast, the cap is an effective primer for DNA synthesis. E. coli DNA polymerase I and Mycobacterium DinB1 extend the DNAppG primer to form an alkali-labile DNApp(rG)pDNA product. The addition of dNTP depends on pairing of the cap guanine with an opposing cytosine in the template strand. Aprataxin, an enzyme implicated in repair of A5′pp5′DNA ends formed during abortive ligation by classic ligases, is highly effective as a DNA 3′ decapping enzyme, converting DNAppG to DNA3′p and GMP. We conclude that the biochemical impact of DNA capping is to prevent resection and healing of a 3′-PO4 end, while permitting DNA synthesis, at the price of embedding a ribonucleotide and a pyrophosphate linkage in the repaired strand. Aprataxin affords a means to counter the impact of DNA capping.

Structures and activities of archaeal members of the LigD 3′-phosphoesterase DNA repair enzyme superfamily

LigD 3′-phosphoesterase (PE) is a component of the bacterial NHEJ apparatus that performs 3′-end-healing reactions at DNA breaks. The tertiary structure, active site and substrate specificity of bacterial PE are unique vis–à-vis other end-healing enzymes. PE homologs are present in archaea, but their properties are uncharted. Here, we demonstrate the end-healing activities of two archaeal PEs—Candidatus Korarchaeum cryptofilum PE (CkoPE; 117 amino acids) and Methanosarcina barkeri PE (MbaPE; 151 amino acids)—and we report their atomic structures at 1.1 and 2.1 Å, respectively. Archaeal PEs are minimized versions of bacterial PE, consisting of an eight-stranded β barrel and a 310 helix. Their active sites are located in a crescent-shaped groove on the barrel’s outer surface, wherein two histidines and an aspartate coordinate manganese in an octahedral complex that includes two waters and a phosphate anion. The phosphate is in turn coordinated by arginine and histidine side chains. The conservation of active site architecture in bacterial and archaeal PEs, and the concordant effects of active site mutations, underscore a common catalytic mechanism, entailing transition state stabilization by manganese and the phosphate-binding arginine and histidine. Our results fortify the proposal that PEs comprise a DNA repair superfamily distributed widely among taxa.

Structural insights to the metal specificity of an archaeal member of the LigD 3′-phosphoesterase DNA repair enzyme family

LigD 3′-phosphoesterase (PE) enzymes perform end-healing reactions at DNA breaks. Here we characterize the 3′-ribonucleoside-resecting activity of Candidatus Korarchaeum PE. CkoPE prefers a single-stranded substrate versus a primer–template. Activity is abolished by vanadate (10 mM), but is less sensitive to phosphate (IC50 50 mM) or chloride (IC50 150 mM). The metal requirement is satisfied by manganese, cobalt, copper or cadmium, but not magnesium, calcium, nickel or zinc. Insights to CkoPE metal specificity were gained by solving new 1.5 Å crystal structures of CkoPE in complexes with Co2+ and Zn2+. His9, His15 and Asp17 coordinate cobalt in an octahedral complex that includes a phosphate anion, which is in turn coordinated by Arg19 and His51. The cobalt and phosphate positions and the atomic contacts in the active site are virtually identical to those in the CkoPE·Mn2+ structure. By contrast, Zn2+ binds in the active site in a tetrahedral complex, wherein the position, orientation and atomic contacts of the phosphate are shifted and its interaction with His51 is lost. We conclude that: (i) PE selectively binds to ‘soft’ metals in either productive or non-productive modes and (ii) PE catalysis depends acutely on proper metal and scissile phosphate geometry.

Effects of DNA3′pp5′G capping on 3′ end repair reactions and of an embedded pyrophosphate-linked guanylate on ribonucleotide surveillance

When DNA breakage results in a 3′-PO4 terminus, the end is considered ‘dirty’ because it cannot prime repair synthesis by DNA polymerases or sealing by classic DNA ligases. The noncanonical ligase RtcB can guanylylate the DNA 3′-PO4 to form a DNA3′pp5′GOH cap. Here we show that DNA capping precludes end joining by classic ATP-dependent and NAD+-dependent DNA ligases, prevents template-independent nucleotide addition by mammalian terminal transferase, blocks exonucleolytic proofreading by Escherichia coli DNA polymerase II and inhibits proofreading by E. coli DNA polymerase III, while permitting templated DNA synthesis from the cap guanosine 3′-OH primer by E. coli DNA polymerase II (B family) and E. coli DNA polymerase III (C family). Human DNA polymerase β (X family) extends the cap primer predominantly by a single templated addition step. Cap-primed synthesis by templated polymerases embeds a pyrophosphate-linked ribonucleotide in DNA. We find that the embedded ppG is refractory to surveillance and incision by RNase H2.