V.J. Ingram

Evaluating the Impacts of Plantations and Associated Forestry Operations in Africa—Methods and Indicators

SUMMARY This study explores how the impact of large scale plantations and their associated industrial operations can be evaluated. It takes a value chain approach, looking at impacts on suppliers, customers and stakeholders such as communities, local and national government and investors. Whilst there is renewed interest from investors, governments and enterprises in the potential of planted forestry operations in Africa, doubts have been expressed by communities, and environmental and socially orientated NGOs about their impacts. This paper seeks to provide a framework which can be used to examine the impacts of modern plantations in Africa, given that the context can be very different from plantations in temperate regions. An impact logic (theory of change) is developed which sets out the range of activities, stakeholders and intended impacts, based on two cases of investments in sustainable forestry operations in Tanzania and Mozambique. This, a literature review and interviews with stakeholders, guided the development of indicators to assess economic, social and environmental impacts. The extent that a quantitative and qualitative (mixed methods) impact evaluation is possible and the data required to enable such an evaluation are deliberated. An evaluation framework and supporting indicators are proposed and discussed.

Governance Options to Enhance Ecosystem Services in Cocoa, Soy, Tropical Timber and Palm Oil Value Chains

Dutch policies have advocated sustainable commodity value chains, which have implications for the landscapes from which these commodities originate. This study examines governance and policy options for sustainability in terms of how ecosystem services are addressed in cocoa, soy, tropical timber and palm oil value chains with Dutch links. A range of policies addressing ecosystem services were identified, from market governance (certification, payments for ecosystem services) to multi-actor platforms (roundtables) and public governance (policies and regulations). An analysis of policy narratives and interviews identified if and how ecosystem services are addressed within value chains and policies; how the concept has been incorporated into value chain governance; and which governance options are available. The Dutch government was found to take a steering but indirect role in all the cases, primarily through supporting, financing, facilitating and partnering policies. Interventions mainly from end-of-chain stakeholders located in processing and consumption countries resulted in new market governance, notably voluntary sustainability standards. These have been successful in creating awareness of some ecosystem services and bringing stakeholders together. However, they have not fully addressed all ecosystem services or stakeholders, thus failing to increase the sustainability of value chains or of the landscapes of origin. We argue that chains sourced in tropical landscapes may be governed more effectively for sustainability if voluntary, market policy tools and governance arrangements have more integrated goals that take account of sourcing landscapes and impacts along the entire value chain. Given the international nature of these commodities. These findings have significance for debates on public-private approaches to value chain and landscape governance.

Savannah Forest Beekeepers in Cameroon: Actions to Reduce Vulnerability

The savannah forests in Adamaoua, Cameroon, are home to traditional, forest-based beekeepers, subsistence farmers and pastoralists. This sparsely populated region is economically marginal and little developed, with lower than national average incomes. Forest apiculture is important here: honey, beeswax and propolis contribute on average to 68 % of household income and have high food, medicinal and cultural value. Bees are also critical pollinators of crops and trees. Practised by 48 % of the population in Djerem Division, apiculture is a route out of poverty only for a few larger-scale beekeepers, but provides a safety net and income diversification for the majority of the 12,000 beekeepers in the region. This savannah ecosystem has been historically subject to climatic changes. Unusual and increasing climatic variations add to human and forest vulnerability by affecting flowering seasons, pests and apiculture production. Land tenure is traditionally regulated, and the government, the formal landowner of public domain forest, is practically non-existent. Increasing apiculture product commercialization, mineral finds, dams and growing migration are transforming local perceptions of forest and land tenure and adding to already insecure livelihoods. The results of research (2004–2010) on how these beekeepers use the forest, their vulnerabilities and responses indicate that individual and group solutions are being bricolaged to secure livelihoods, adapt and mitigate changes. This includes formalization, collective action, product value-adding, tentative customary tenure changes and innovative new chain and market arrangements. Apiculture professionalization and product diversification are increasing the value of forest beekeeping and of revenues for men and women.