Valerie J. Shute

Focus on Formative Feedback

This article reviews the corpus of research on feedback, with a focus on formative feedback—defined as information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking or behavior to improve learning. According to researchers, formative feedback should be nonevaluative, supportive, timely, and specific. Formative feedback is usually presented as information to a learner in response to some action on the learner’s part. It comes in a variety of types (e.g., verification of response accuracy, explanation of the correct answer, hints, worked examples) and can be administered at various times during the learning process (e.g., immediately following an answer, after some time has elapsed). Finally, several variables have been shown to interact with formative feedback’s success at promoting learning (e.g., individual characteristics of the learner and aspects of the task). All of these issues are discussed. This review concludes with guidelines for generating formative feedback.

A Large-Scale Evaluation of an Intelligent Discovery World: Smithtown

Abstract Smithtown is an intelligent tutoring system designed to enhance an individuals scientific inquiry skills as well as to provide an environment for learning principles of basic microeconomics. It was hypothesized that computer instruction on applying effective interrogative skills (e.g., changing one variable at a time while holding all else constant) would ultimately lead to the acquisition of the specific subject matter. This paper presents an evaluation of Smithtown in two studies of individual differences in learning. Experiment 1, an exploratory study, demonstrated that Smithtown fared very well when compared to traditional instruction on economics and delineated the performance indicators which separated better from worse learners in this discovery environment. Experiment 2 extended the findings from the exploratory study using a large sample of subjects (N = 530) from a different population interacting with Smithtown and showed that the performance indicators relating to hypothesis generati...

Adaptive E-Learning

It has long been known that differences among individuals have an effect on learning. Dick Snows research on aptitude-treatment interactions (ATIs) was designed to investigate and quantify these effects, and more recent research in this vein has clearly established that these effects can be quantified and predicted. Technology has now reached a point where we have the opportunity to capitalize on these effects to the benefit of learners. In this article, we review some of the demonstrated effects of ATIs, describe how ATI research naturally leads to adaptive e-learning, and describe one way in which an adaptive e-learning system might be implemented to take advantage of these effects.

The relationship between androgen levels and human spatial abilities

Individual differences on spatial tasks were examined relative to differences in free-androgen levels. A spatial test battery was administered to 91 males and females who differed in free-androgen levels as determined by a radioimmunoassay. Polynomial regression analyses yielded significant curvilinear functions relating spatial scores and androgen levels. A second study, conducted with a group of 33 males and females, replicated the basic findings of the first experiment.

What Is Design Thinking and Why Is It Important

Design thinking is generally defined as an analytic and creative process that engages a person in opportunities to experiment, create and prototype models, gather feedback, and redesign. Several characteristics (e.g., visualization, creativity) that a good design thinker should possess have been identified from the literature. The primary purpose of this article is to summarize and synthesize the research on design thinking to (a) better understand its characteristics and processes, as well as the differences between novice and expert design thinkers, and (b) apply the findings from the literature regarding the application of design thinking to our educational system. The authors’ overarching goal is to identify the features and characteristics of design thinking and discuss its importance in promoting students’ problem-solving skills in the 21st century.

Who is Likely to Acquire Programming Skills

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between programming skill acquisition and various measures of individual differences, including: 1) prior knowledge and general cognitive skills (e.g., word knowledge, information processing speed); 2) problem solving abilities (e.g., ability to decompose a problem into its constituent parts); and 3) learning style measures (e.g., asking for hints versus solving problems on ones own). Subjects (N = 260) received extensive Pascal programming instruction from an intelligent tutoring system. Following instruction, an online battery of criterion tests was administered measuring programming knowledge and skills acquired from the tutor. Results showed that a large amount (68%) of the outcome variance could be predicted by a working-memory factor, specific word problem solving abilities (i.e., problem identification and sequencing of elements) and some learning style measures (i.e., asking for hints and running programs). Implications of the findings for the development of a theoretical framework on which to base programming instruction are discussed.

The power of play

In this study, we tested 77 undergraduates who were randomly assigned to play either a popular video game (Portal 2) or a popular brain training game (Lumosity) for 8?h. Before and after gameplay, participants completed a set of online tests related to problem solving, spatial skill, and persistence. Results revealed that participants who were assigned to play Portal 2 showed a statistically significant advantage over Lumosity on each of the three composite measures-problem solving, spatial skill, and persistence. Portal 2 players also showed significant increases from pretest to posttest on specific small- and large-scale spatial tests while those in the Lumosity condition did not show any pretest to posttest differences on any measure. Results are discussed in terms of the positive impact video games can have on cognitive and noncognitive skills. We tested subjects randomly assigned to play Portal 2 or Lumosity for 8?h.All were pre/post tested on problem solving, spatial skills, and persistence.Portal 2 players scored higher than Lumosity on all three constructs.Portal 2 players also showed significant gains on spatial tests.Lumosity subjects showed no gains on any measure.

Personal and Social-Contextual Factors in K–12 Academic Performance: An Integrative Perspective on Student Learning

Our extensive literature review in the fields of educational, social, and cognitive psychology has led us to identify about a dozen variables that demonstrate direct empirical links to academic achievement at the K–12 level. Those variables are grouped into four major categories: student engagement, learning strategies, school climate, and social-familial influences. We then categorize the first two variables as personal factors and the latter two as social-contextual factors. We document empirical findings that have shown particular relationships between the reviewed personal and social-contextual factors and academic achievement, mainly in the areas of reading and mathematics. Based on our conceptualization, we propose an integrated perspective that students’ personal factors in the domains of behavior, affect, attitude, and cognition as well as their social-contextual environment have to work in concert to produce optimal school performance. We conclude with a discussion on educational implications and future research to be addressed.

Understanding spatial ability

Spatial ability is discussed in terms of psychometric factors and information processing research. Reanalysis of major psychometric studies suggests two major spatial factors — spatial relations and spatial visualization ability. Apparent differences between these factors in speed versus power and cognitive complexity are verified by process analyses of individual differences in spatial relations and visualization ability. Information processing studies suggest multiple sources of individual differences such as process execution speed, quality and capacity of representation, process coordination and strategies for problem solution. Consideration is also given to additional issues for research as well as implications for testing.

Games, Learning, and Assessment

Learning in games has historically been assessed indirectly and/or in a post hoc manner. What’s needed instead is real-time assessment and support of learning based on the dynamic needs of players. We need to be able to experimentally determine the degree to which games can support learning, and how and why they achieve this objective. In this chapter we describe an approach to designing and developing evidence-based diagnostic assessments that may be embedded in a game environment. When embedded assessments are so seamlessly woven into the game that they’re virtually invisible, we call this “stealth assessment.” Embedding assessments within games provides a way to monitor a player’s current level on valued competencies, and then use that information as the basis for support, such as adjusting the difficulty level of challenges or providing a report for the teacher.