Vegard Fusche Moe

A Philosophical Critique of Classical Cognitivism in Sport: From Information Processing to Bodily Background Knowledge

(2005). A Philosophical Critique of Classical Cognitivism in Sport: From Information Processing to Bodily Background Knowledge. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport: Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 155-183.How can we understand intentional movements that make up sport? This is a core problem for sport research, and, over the years, several distinct answers have emerged. One of the most popular approaches to the problem for the last 30 years or so comes from an information-processing theory based on a computer model of the mind. This computer-inspired approach, that is, classical cognitivism (e.g., 7) or simply cognitivism (20), implies strong analogy between how computers and human intelligence work. The computer is a device that computes or processes information according to certain program or rule structures. The human mind, on this view, operates similarly. The computer model of the mind has been widely adopted for sport research at conceptual, empirical, and practical levels, and it has led to a reliance on notions such as information processing, motor programs, representations, traces, schemas, and the like.1 Recently, however, classical cognitivism has been attacked from a variety of different perspectives. Strong critiques have emerged from philosophy, ecological psychology, and the dynamical-systems perspective. In particular, during the last decade or so the debate between a cognitive computer-inspired approach on the one hand and an ecological/dynamical approach on the other has been rich and lively in human movement science generally and sport psychology specifically. Both strengths and weaknesses of these two approaches have been thoroughly accounted for elsewhere (e.g., 1; 51; 53; 54). Although this debate is important, I do not take it up in this article. In this article I do, however, take a closer look at the critique of classical cognitivism that has come from the philosophical perspective. In particular, I examine the counterarguments that have been raised against the computer model of the mind from two renowned critics, Hubert Dreyfus and John Searle. Their critiques have barely, to my knowledge, been addressed in the sport literature before. Dreyfus and Searle have, from distinct philosophical perspectives, developed original arguments against classical cognitivism, and their critiques have been at the forefront in cognitive science for the last 30 years or so, something that has been emphasized by Clark:

Effects of physical activity on schoolchildren's academic performance : The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) cluster-randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of a seven-month, school-based cluster-randomized controlled trial on academic performance in 10-year-old children. METHODS In total, 1129 fifth-grade children from 57 elementary schools in Sogn og Fjordane County, Norway, were cluster-randomized by school either to the intervention group or to the control group. The children in the 28 intervention schools participated in a physical activity intervention between November 2014 and June 2015 consisting of three components: 1) 90min/week of physically active educational lessons mainly carried out in the school playground; 2) 5min/day of physical activity breaks during classroom lessons; 3) 10min/day physical activity homework. Academic performance in numeracy, reading and English was measured using standardized Norwegian national tests. Physical activity was measured objectively by accelerometry. RESULTS We found no effect of the intervention on academic performance in primary analyses (standardized difference 0.01-0.06, p>0.358). Subgroup analyses, however, revealed a favorable intervention effect for those who performed the poorest at baseline (lowest tertile) for numeracy (p=0.005 for the subgroup∗group interaction), compared to controls (standardized difference 0.62, 95% CI 0.19-1.07). CONCLUSIONS This large, rigorously conducted cluster RCT in 10-year-old children supports the notion that there is still inadequate evidence to conclude that increased physical activity in school enhances academic achievement in all children. Still, combining physical activity and learning seems a viable model to stimulate learning in those academically weakest schoolchildren.

Reflective Practice in Physical Education and Physical Education Teacher Education: A Review of the Literature Since 1995

Reflection and reflective practice are key concepts in the educational literature as well as in research on physical education (PE) and physical education teacher education (PETE). The purpose of this article is to review the current empirical knowledge base for reflection and reflective practice in PE and PETE from 1995 to 2011. The review includes empirical research published in peer reviewed journals on the topics on reflection and reflective practice in the contexts of PE and PETE. There were 33 articles included in the review. Most of the research is conducted in the PETE context, where it was found that pre-service teachers do develop their reflective capabilities. However, the results also indicate students make little progress on critical reflections. In the PE context, it was found that teachers express a need for reflective communities. Theoretical and methodological challenges with the reviewed literature are discussed and suggestions for further research proposed.

Understanding the Background Conditions of Skilled Movement in Sport: A Study of Searle's ‘Background Capacities’

In this paper I take up John Searles account of ‘Background capacities’ to render intelligible the presupposed and hidden aspects of the background conditions that enable the performance of skilled movement. The paper begins with a review of Searles initial account of Background capacities and how this picture can be applied to account for skilled movement in sport. Then an objection to this picture is addressed, claiming that Searles initial picture might ‘overrepresentationalise’ background conditions. Moreover, this objection prompts how Searle has modified his initial picture of background conditions in accordance with his more recent ‘connection principle’. Searles recent account of background conditions is then elaborated and discussed in the second half of the paper. The discussion emphasises three distinct levels of analysis in Searles framework necessary to a full understanding of his background conditions: (i) the neurophysiological level; (ii) the descriptive higher-order practical skill level; and (iii) the logical level of integration. It is argued that Searles logical framework is found plausible, but that more work is needed to better understand the background conditions of skilled movement in terms of neurophysiological capacities and practical skills from both scientific and philosophical perspectives.

Theory and Practice in the Context of Practicum: The Perspectives of Norwegian Physical Education Student Teachers.

Previous studies have found that student teachers value the practicum over other parts of physical education teacher education and that they experience a gap between theory and practice in their education. The purpose of this study was to provide more knowledge about the theory–practice relations in the context of the practicum of physical education teacher education. Data were generated through focus group interviews with physical education teacher education students (n = 37) from three different university colleges in Norway. The analysis and discussion of the data material were framed with the concept of practical synthesis (Grimen, 2008). The findings indicate that students experience theory and practice as fragmented, but that they have a differentiated understanding of what theory is. The analysis also suggests that, for the students, university tutors occupy a rather distant role in the practicum and that it is mostly left to the students to make connections between theory and practice.

Merleau-ponty Meets Kretchmar: Sweet Tensions of Embodied Learning

The last decades have seen a rising philosophical interest in the phenomenology of skill acquisition. One central topic in this work is the relation between the athletes background capacities and foreground attention as an invariant feature of skilful movements. The purpose of this paper is to examine further this gestalt relation from the perspective of Merleau-Pontys phenomenological account of embodied learning and a classical notion from philosophy of sport, namely ‘sweet tension of uncertainty of outcome’. In the first part we will explicate how Merleau-Ponty understands embodied learning as a form of gestalt switch that allows the athlete to perceive the world more meaningfully in relation to an ongoing movement project. That is, a skilled athlete perceives more and better opportunities for actions. In the second part, we revisit the classical notion of ‘sweet tension of uncertainty of outcome’ developed by Kretchmar. This phrase is attributed to the indeterminate back and forth rallies between sport contestants, and to persons facing a sport situation that produces an ambiguity as to whether one will succeed in ones task. In the third part, we then juxtapose Merleau-Pontys notion of embodied learning and the notion of sweet tension from philosophy of sport in order to draw out the relations between the two notions. In addition, in much of the philosophical work on skill acquisition (for instance in Merleau-Ponty and his much-cited commentator, Hubert Dreyfus) the distinction between everyday skills (such as walking and opening doors) and sport skills is collapsed. Our discussion aims to show that by introducing the notion of ‘sweet tension’ to the literature on phenomenology of skill acquisition, we are able to highlight a phenomenological difference between everyday skills and sport skills.

Situation awareness in sea kayaking: towards a practical checklist

ABSTRACT Ever-changing weather and sea conditions constitute environmental hazards that sea kayakers must pay attention to and act upon to stay safe. The aim of this study was to propose a tool to aid sea kayakers’ situation awareness (SA). We developed a checklist guided by theory on the concept of SA and expert problem detection, judgement and decision-making, along with knowledge concerning previous incidents and important risk factors in sea kayaking. The checklist consists of two parts: a guide to how paddlers can improve their SA and decision-making skills, and an overview of what critical factors should be evaluated before and during a sea kayak trip. We argue that the checklist may improve risk assessment and management among sea kayakers, help to prevent distress and future incidents, and ultimately potentially save lives. Finally, we wish to stimulate debate concerning risk management in sea kayaking and outdoor education.

Executive Functions Do Not Mediate Prospective Relations between Indices of Physical Activity and Academic Performance: The Active Smarter Kids (ASK) Study

Changes in cognitive function induced by physical activity have been proposed as a mechanism for the link between physical activity and academic performance. The aim of this study was to investigate if executive function mediated the prospective relations between indices of physical activity and academic performance in a sample of 10-year-old Norwegian children. The study included 1,129 children participating in the Active Smarter Kids (ASK) trial, followed over 7 months. Structural equation modeling (SEM) with a latent variable of executive function (measuring inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) was used in the analyses. Predictors were objectively measured physical activity, time spent sedentary, aerobic fitness, and motor skills. Outcomes were performance on national tests of numeracy, reading, and English (as a second language). Generally, indices of physical activity did not predict executive function and academic performance. A modest mediation effect of executive function was observed for the relation between motor skills and academic performance. Trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov registry, trial registration number: NCT02132494.

Effects of the Active Smarter Kids (ASK) Physical Activity School-based Intervention on Executive Functions: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a seven-month curriculum prescribed physical activity (PA) intervention (the Active Smarter Kids [ASK] intervention) on executive functions in 10-year-old Norwegian children. A linear mixed model was used to analyze data from 971–1,123 fifth grade children at 28 intervention schools and 29 control schools. The intervention constituted three PA elements: PA educational lessons, PA breaks, and PA homework, adding 165 minutes of PA to the mandatory 135 minutes of PA and physical education. There was no effect of the intervention on executive functions in the intention-to-treat analyses. Per protocol analyses (n = 776–850) revealed small effects of the intervention on the composite score of executive functions, cognitive flexibility, and motor skills. Cognitively engaging and coordinative demanding activities/games seem viable options to increase executive functions and possibly improve academic performance in children.

On phenomenological and logical characteristics of skilled behaviour in sport: cognitive and motor intentionality

Abstract In this paper, I discuss phenomenological and logical characteristics of skilled behaviour in sport. The paper comprises two parts. The first describes phenomenological characteristics of skilled behaviour through Timothy Gallwey’s two playing modes and Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s distinction between abstract and concrete movement. The second logical part introduces the concept of intentionality and the distinction Sean Kelly makes between cognitive and motor intentionality. I discuss how this distinction fits the phenomenological characteristics established in the first part of the paper. My argument is that the logical structure of cognitive intentionality fits phenomenological characteristics of abstract movement, whereas the logical structure of motor intentionality fits phenomenological characteristics of concrete movements.