Vera A. Golovina

Ca2+ handling is altered when arterial myocytes progress from a contractile to a proliferative phenotype in culture.

Phenotypic modulation of vascular myocytes is important for vascular development and adaptation. A characteristic feature of this process is alteration in intracellular Ca(2+) handling, which is not completely understood. We studied mechanisms involved in functional changes of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3))- and ryanodine (Ry)-sensitive Ca(2+) stores, store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE), and receptor-operated Ca(2+) entry (ROCE) associated with arterial myocyte modulation from a contractile to a proliferative phenotype in culture. Proliferating, cultured myocytes from rat mesenteric artery have elevated resting cytosolic Ca(2+) levels and increased IP(3)-sensitive Ca(2+) store content. ATP- and cyclopiazonic acid [CPA; a sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA) inhibitor]-induced Ca(2+) transients in Ca(2+)-free medium are significantly larger in proliferating arterial smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) than in freshly dissociated myocytes, whereas caffeine (Caf)-induced Ca(2+) release is much smaller. Moreover, the Caf/Ry-sensitive store gradually loses sensitivity to Caf activation during cell culture. These changes can be explained by increased expression of all three IP(3) receptors and a switch from Ry receptor type II to type III expression during proliferation. SOCE, activated by depletion of the IP(3)/CPA-sensitive store, is greatly increased in proliferating ASMCs. Augmented SOCE and ROCE (activated by the diacylglycerol analog 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol) in proliferating myocytes can be attributed to upregulated expression of, respectively, transient receptor potential proteins TRPC1/4/5 and TRPC3/6. Moreover, stromal interacting molecule 1 (STIM1) and Orai proteins are upregulated in proliferating cells. Increased expression of IP(3) receptors, SERCA2b, TRPCs, Orai(s), and STIM1 in proliferating ASMCs suggests that these proteins play a critical role in an altered Ca(2+) handling that occurs during vascular growth and remodeling.

How NaCl raises blood pressure: a new paradigm for the pathogenesis of salt-dependent hypertension

Excess dietary salt is a major cause of hypertension. Nevertheless, the specific mechanisms by which salt increases arterial constriction and peripheral vascular resistance, and thereby raises blood pressure (BP), are poorly understood. Here we summarize recent evidence that defines specific molecular links between Na(+) and the elevated vascular resistance that directly produces high BP. In this new paradigm, high dietary salt raises cerebrospinal fluid [Na(+)]. This leads, via the Na(+)-sensing circumventricular organs of the brain, to increased sympathetic nerve activity (SNA), a major trigger of vasoconstriction. Plasma levels of endogenous ouabain (EO), the Na(+) pump ligand, also become elevated. Remarkably, high cerebrospinal fluid [Na(+)]-evoked, locally secreted (hypothalamic) EO participates in a pathway that mediates the sustained increase in SNA. This hypothalamic signaling chain includes aldosterone, epithelial Na(+) channels, EO, ouabain-sensitive α(2) Na(+) pumps, and angiotensin II (ANG II). The EO increases (e.g.) hypothalamic ANG-II type-1 receptor and NADPH oxidase and decreases neuronal nitric oxide synthase protein expression. The aldosterone-epithelial Na(+) channel-EO-α(2) Na(+) pump-ANG-II pathway modulates the activity of brain cardiovascular control centers that regulate the BP set point and induce sustained changes in SNA. In the periphery, the EO secreted by the adrenal cortex directly enhances vasoconstriction via an EO-α(2) Na(+) pump-Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger-Ca(2+) signaling pathway. Circulating EO also activates an EO-α(2) Na(+) pump-Src kinase signaling cascade. This increases the expression of the Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger-transient receptor potential cation channel Ca(2+) signaling pathway in arterial smooth muscle but decreases the expression of endothelial vasodilator mechanisms. Additionally, EO is a growth factor and may directly participate in the arterial structural remodeling and lumen narrowing that is frequently observed in established hypertension. These several central and peripheral mechanisms are coordinated, in part by EO, to effect and maintain the salt-induced elevation of BP.

Molecular basis and function of voltage-gated K+ channels in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells.

K+-channel activity-mediated alteration of the membrane potential and cytoplasmic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) is a pivotal mechanism in controlling pulmonary vasomotor tone. By using combined approaches of patch clamp, imaging fluorescent microscopy, and molecular biology, we examined the electrophysiological properties of K+ channels and the role of different K+ currents in regulating [Ca2+]cytand explored the molecular identification of voltage-gated K+(KV)- and Ca2+-activated K+(KCa)-channel genes expressed in pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMC). Two kinetically distinct KV currents [ I K(V)], a rapidly inactivating (A-type) and a noninactivating delayed rectifier, as well as a slowly activated KCa current [ I K(Ca)] were identified. I K(V) was reversibly inhibited by 4-aminopyridine (5 mM), whereas I K(Ca) was significantly inhibited by charybdotoxin (10-20 nM). K+ channels are composed of pore-forming α-subunits and auxiliary β-subunits. Five KV-channel α-subunit genes from the Shaker subfamily (KV1.1, KV1.2, KV1.4, KV1.5, and KV1.6), a KV-channel α-subunit gene from the Shab subfamily (KV2.1), a KV-channel modulatory α-subunit (KV9.3), and a KCa-channel α-subunit gene ( rSlo), as well as three KV-channel β-subunit genes (KVβ1.1, KVβ2, and KVβ3) are expressed in PASMC. The data suggest that 1) native K+ channels in PASMC are encoded by multiple genes; 2) the delayed rectifier I K(V)may be generated by the KV1.1, KV1.2, KV1.5, KV1.6, KV2.1, and/or KV2.1/KV9.3 channels; 3) the A-type I K(V) may be generated by the KV1.4 channel and/or the delayed rectifier KV channels (KV1 subfamily) associated with β-subunits; and 4) the I K(Ca) may be generated by the rSlo gene product. The function of the KV channels plays an important role in the regulation of membrane potential and [Ca2+]cytin PASMC.

Visualization of localized store‐operated calcium entry in mouse astrocytes. Close proximity to the endoplasmic reticulum

Unloading of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ stores activates influx of extracellular Ca2+ through ‘store‐operated’ Ca2+ channels (SOCs) in the plasma membrane (PM) of most cells, including astrocytes. A key unresolved issue concerning SOC function is their spatial relationship to ER Ca2+ stores. Here, using high resolution imaging with the membrane‐associated Ca2+ indicator, FFP‐18, it is shown that store‐operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) in primary cultured mouse cortical astrocytes occurs at plasma membrane–ER junctions. In the absence of extracellular Ca2+, depletion of ER Ca2+ stores using cyclopiazonic acid, an ER Ca2+‐ATPase inhibitor, and caffeine transiently increases the sub‐plasma‐membrane Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]SPM) within a restricted space between the plasma membrane and adjacent ER. Restoration of extracellular Ca2+ causes localized Ca2+ influx that first increases [Ca2+]SPM in the same restricted regions and then, with a delay, in ER‐free regions. Antisense knockdown of the TRPC1 gene, proposed to encode endogenous SOCs, markedly reduces SOCE measured with Fura‐2. High resolution immunocytochemistry with anti‐TRPC1 antibody reveals that these TRPC‐encoded SOCs are confined to the PM microdomains adjacent to the underlying ‘junctional’ ER. Thus, Ca2+ entry through TRPC‐encoded SOCs is closely linked, not only functionally, but also structurally, to the ER Ca2+ stores.

Cell proliferation is associated with enhanced capacitative Ca2+ entry in human arterial myocytes

Depletion of Ca(2+) stores in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) activates extracellular Ca(2+) influx via capacitative Ca(2+) entry (CCE). Here, CCE levels in proliferating and growth-arrested human pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) were compared by digital imaging fluorescence microscopy. Resting cytosolic free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](cyt)) in proliferating PASMCs was twofold higher than that in growth-arrested cells. Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA; 10 microM), which inhibits SR Ca(2+)-ATPase and depletes inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive Ca(2+) stores, transiently increased [Ca(2+)](cyt) in the absence of extracellular Ca(2+). The addition of 1.8 mM Ca(2+) to the extracellular solution in the presence of CPA induced large increases in [Ca(2+)](cyt), indicative of CCE. The CPA-induced SR Ca(2+) release in proliferating PASMCs was twofold higher than that in growth-arrested cells, whereas the transient rise of [Ca(2+)](cyt) due to CCE was fivefold greater in proliferating cells. CCE was insensitive to nifedipine but was significantly inhibited by 50 mM K(+), which reduces the driving force for Ca(2+) influx, and by 0.5 mM Ni(2+), a putative blocker of store-operated Ca(2+) channels. These data show that augmented CCE is associated with proliferation of human PASMCs and may be involved in stimulating and maintaining cell growth.Depletion of Ca2+ stores in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) activates extracellular Ca2+ influx via capacitative Ca2+ entry (CCE). Here, CCE levels in proliferating and growth-arrested human pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) were compared by digital imaging fluorescence microscopy. Resting cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) in proliferating PASMCs was twofold higher than that in growth-arrested cells. Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA; 10 μM), which inhibits SR Ca2+-ATPase and depletes inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ stores, transiently increased [Ca2+]cytin the absence of extracellular Ca2+. The addition of 1.8 mM Ca2+ to the extracellular solution in the presence of CPA induced large increases in [Ca2+]cyt, indicative of CCE. The CPA-induced SR Ca2+ release in proliferating PASMCs was twofold higher than that in growth-arrested cells, whereas the transient rise of [Ca2+]cytdue to CCE was fivefold greater in proliferating cells. CCE was insensitive to nifedipine but was significantly inhibited by 50 mM K+, which reduces the driving force for Ca2+ influx, and by 0.5 mM Ni2+, a putative blocker of store-operated Ca2+ channels. These data show that augmented CCE is associated with proliferation of human PASMCs and may be involved in stimulating and maintaining cell growth.

Local subplasma membrane Ca2+ signals detected by a tethered Ca2+ sensor.

Accumulating evidence indicates that plasma membrane (PM) microdomains and the subjacent “junctional” sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum (jS/ER) constitute specialized Ca2+ signaling complexes in many cell types. We examined the possibility that some Ca2+ signals arising in the junctional space between the PM and jS/ER may represent cross-talk between the PM and jS/ER. The Ca2+ sensor protein, GCaMP2, was targeted to different PM domains by constructing genes for fusion proteins with either the α1 or α2 isoform of the Na+ pump catalytic (α) subunit. These fusion proteins were expressed in primary cultured mouse brain astrocytes and arterial smooth muscle cells. Immunocytochemistry demonstrated that α2(f)GCaMP2, like native Na+ pumps with α2-subunits, sorted to PM domains that colocalized with subjacent S/ER; α1(f)GCaMP2, like Na+ pumps with α1-subunits, was more uniformly distributed. The GCaMP2 moieties in both constructs were tethered just beneath the PM. Both constructs detected global Ca2+ signals evoked by serotonin (in arterial smooth muscle cells) and ATP, and by store-operated Ca2+ channel-mediated Ca2+ entry after S/ER unloading with cyclopiazonic acid (in Ca2+-free medium). When cytosolic Ca2+ diffusion was markedly restricted with EGTA, however, only α2(f)GCaMP2 detected the local, store-operated Ca2+ channel-mediated Ca2+ entry signal. Thus, α1 Na+ pumps are apparently excluded from the PM microdomains occupied by α2 Na2+ pumps. The jS/ER and adjacent PM may communicate by Ca2+ signals that are confined to the tiny junctional space between the two membranes. Similar methods may be useful for studying localized Ca2+ signals in other subPM microdomains and signals associated with other organelles.

Orai1, a critical component of store-operated Ca2+ entry, is functionally associated with Na+/Ca2+ exchanger and plasma membrane Ca2+ pump in proliferating human arterial myocytes.

Ca(2+) entry through store-operated channels (SOCs) in the plasma membrane plays an important role in regulation of vascular smooth muscle contraction, tone, and cell proliferation. The C-type transient receptor potential (TRPC) channels have been proposed as major candidates for SOCs in vascular smooth muscle. Recently, two families of transmembrane proteins, Orai [also known as Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) channel modulator (CRACM)] and stromal interacting molecule 1 (STIM1), were shown to be essential for the activation of SOCs mainly in nonexcitable cells. Here, using small interfering RNA, we show that Orai1 plays an essential role in activating store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE) in primary cultured proliferating human aortic smooth muscle cells (hASMCs), whereas Orai2 and Orai3 do not contribute to SOCE. Knockdown of Orai1 protein expression significantly attenuated SOCE. Moreover, inhibition of Orai1 downregulated expression of Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger type 1 (NCX1) and plasma membrane Ca(2+) pump isoform 1 (PMCA1). The rate of cytosolic free Ca(2+) concentration decay after Ca(2+) transients in Ca(2+)-free medium was also greatly decreased under these conditions. This reduction of Ca(2+) extrusion, presumably via NCX1 and PMCA1, may be a compensation for the reduced SOCE. Immunocytochemical observations indicate that Orai1 and NCX1 are clustered in plasma membrane microdomains. Cell proliferation was attenuated in hASMCs with disrupted Orai1 expression and reduced SOCE. Thus Orai1 appears to be a critical component of SOCE in proliferating vascular smooth muscle cells, and may therefore be a key player during vascular growth and remodeling.

Unloading and refilling of two classes of spatially resolved endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores in astrocytes

Signaling by two classes of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ stores was studied in primary cultured rat astrocytes. Cytosolic and intra‐ER Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]CYT and [Ca2+]ER) were measured with, respectively, Fura‐2 and Furaptra, in separate experiments. The agonists, glutamate and ATP, released Ca2+ primarily from cyclopiazonic acid (CPA)‐sensitive ER Ca2+ stores (CPA inhibits ER Ca2+ pumps). Agonist‐evoked release was abolished by prior treatment with CPA but was unaffected by prior depletion of caffeine/ryanodine (CAF/RY)‐sensitive ER Ca2+ stores. Conversely, prior depletion of the CPA‐sensitive stores did not interfere with Ca2+ release or reuptake in the CAF/RY‐sensitive stores. Unloading of the CPA‐sensitive stores, but not the CAF/RY‐sensitive stores, promoted Ca2+ entry through “store‐operated channels.” Resting [Ca2+]ER averaged 153 μM (based on in situ calibration of Furaptra: KD = 76 μM, vs 53 μM in solution). The releasable Ca2+ in both types of ER Ca2+ stores was increased by Na+ pump inhibition with 1 mM ouabain or K+‐free medium. Using high spatial resolution imaging and image subtraction methods, we observed that some regions of the ER (45–58% of the total ER) unloaded and refilled when CPA was added and removed. Other regions of the ER (24–38%) unloaded and refilled when CAF was added and removed. The overlap between these two classes of ER was only 10–18%. These data indicate that there are two structurally separate, independent components of the ER and that they are responsible for the functional independence of the CPA‐sensitive and CAF/RY‐sensitive ER Ca2+ stores. GLIA 31:15–28, 2000.

Modulation of two functionally distinct Ca2+ stores in astrocytes: Role of the plasmalemmal Na/Ca exchanger

Mechanisms that regulate the amount of releasable Ca2+ in intracellular stores of cultured mouse astrocytes were investigated using digital imaging of fura‐2 loaded cells. At rest, the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration, [Ca2+]cyt, was about 110 nM. In the absence of extracellular Ca2+, cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), an inhibitor of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+‐ATPase, induced a transient, four‐fold increase in [Ca2+]cyt due to the release of Ca2+ from inositol triphosphate (IP3) sensitive stores. Caffeine (CAF), which releases Ca2+ from Ca2+‐sensitive stores, induced a two‐fold increase in [Ca2+]cyt. The CPA‐ and CAF‐sensitive stores could be released independently. Changes in the amplitudes of the Ca2+ transients were taken as a measure of changes in store content. Removal of extracellular Na+ or addition of ouabain, which inhibit Ca2+ extrusion and promote Ca2+ entry across the plasmalemma via the Na/Ca exchanger, caused minimal increases in resting [Ca2+]cyt but greatly potentiated both CPA‐ and CAF‐induced Ca2+ transients. The amount of Ca2+ releasable from the IP3 (CPA) sensitive store was directly proportional to cytosolic Na+ concentration (i.e., inversely proportional to the transmembrane Na+ electrochemical gradient). Under these reduced Na+ gradient conditions, little, if any, Ca2+ destined for the ER stores enters the cells through voltage‐dependent Ca2+ channels. These results demonstrate that mouse astrocytes contain two distinct ER Ca2+ stores, the larger, IP3‐ (CPA‐) sensitive, and the smaller, Ca2+‐ (CAF‐) sensitive. The Ca2+ content of both ER stores can be regulated by the Na/Ca exchanger. Thus, the magnitude of cellular responses to signals that are mediated by Ca2+ release induced by the two second messengers, IP3 and Ca2+, can be modulated by factors that affect the net transport of Ca2+ across the plasmalemma.

Preparation of primary cultured mesenteric artery smooth muscle cells for fluorescent imaging and physiological studies

In this protocol, we describe a method for isolation and culture of smooth muscle cells derived from the adult rat (or mouse) superior mesenteric artery. Arterial myocytes are obtained by enzymatic dissociation and established in primary culture. The cultured cells retain expression of smooth muscle-specific α-actin and physiological responses to agonists. Cultured arterial myocytes (prepared from wild-type or transgenic animals) provide a useful model for studying the regulation of a wide range of vascular smooth muscle responses at the cellular and subcellular levels. Plasmids, RNA interference and antisense oligodeoxynucleotides can be readily introduced into the cells to alter protein expression. Fluorescent dyes can also be introduced to visualize a variety of activities, some of which may be specific to vascular smooth muscle cells. This protocol requires about 3 h on each of 2 consecutive days to complete.