Vera Weckert

The distribution of heavy metals in a transect of the three states the Netherlands, Germany and Poland, determined with the aid of moss monitoring

The use of moss analyses to determine possible metal pollution in a three-country transect consisting of the Netherlands, Germany and Poland is described. In the countries involved, samples of Pleurozium schreberi, Scleropodium purum, Hypnum cupressiforme and Hylocomium splendens were collected at a total of 806 sampling points and analyzed for Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, V and Zn. The results are presented in the form of coloured contour maps using the Geographic Information System (GIS) ARC-Info. With the aid of moss monitoring it was possible to characterize most of the different industrial locations and sources of pollution within the transect. Moreover, the results documented the level of technological development in the western and eastern states when these were compared. The differences became very apparent in the form of steep west-east concentration gradients, especially for the elements iron, vanadium and lead; in the case of the eastern parts of the transect they reflect sources of emissions that are typical of the area. In the main these are the primary users of coal as an energy source and the low technical standard in respect of measures to minimize emissions. In some cases, the maps also indicate possible pollution across international borders and thus situations that do not only result from sources within a specific country. With regard to the methods of sampling and analysis, any element-specific and systematic differences can be made visible on the summarized element maps and thus permit a final check.

A comparison of heavy metal deposition in selected Eastern European countries using the moss monitoring method, with special emphasis on the ‘Black Triangle’

The paper describes the use of moss analyses to compare heavy-metal pollution in Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Special emphasis is placed on the regions where three countries meet within the area covered by the survey. In the countries participating, samples of Pleurozium schreberi, Scleropodium purum, Hypnum cupressiforme and Hylocomium splendens, Polytrichum formosum and Dicranum scoparium were collected at a total of 831 sampling points and analyzed for the elements Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb and Zn. The results were then presented in the form of coloured contour maps using the geographic information system (GIS) ARC-Info. The values found for heavy metals document the level of technical development in the countries concerned, which is generally characterized by a low standard in respect of emission-reducing systems. Moreover, the heavy-metal concentrations reflect the sources of emissions characteristic of the areas in which they occur. Above all, these are the primary use of coal (both hard coal and lignite) as an energy source, the chemical industry and ferrous- and non-ferrous metal working, which produce considerable emissions of particulate and fly ash, and also the use of leaded petrol. In most cases the moss method made it possible to identify the areas affected by the various industrial locations. The results show an increase in heavy-metal concentrations and higher average levels in the eastern parts of the countries compared. The paper also discusses the possibility of including the ‘three-country triangle’ further east in studies of Eastern Europe on the grounds that it constitutes another ‘Black Triangle’ in addition to the already familiar one.

The use of bioindicators for monitoring the heavy-metal status of the environment

Biomonitoring is a method of observing the impact of external factors on ecosystems and their development over a long period, or of ascertaining differences between one location and another. A monitor suitable for the subject of the investigation must be chosen, and the comparability of the element concentrations thus determined (both within the investigation and with other studies) must be ensured by adhering to precise sampling guidelines. In addition to the small amount of equipment required, the advantages of biomonitoring lie in the ecosystem approach that permits conclusions going beyond the biomonitor itself. Attention has to be given to the factors that may affect element concentrations and which can lead to incorrect statements if ignored.

Fluctuations of element concentrations during the growing season of Polytrichum formosum (Hedw.)

Fourteen elements (Al, Ba, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Ni, Pb, Sr, Ti, and Zn) were quantitatively determined by AES/ICP in aboveground parts of the endohydric moss Polytrichum formosum (Hedw.) after sampling over regular intervals from 1985 to 1987. With the exception of K, Mg, and Zn all elements showed a large continuous fluctuation (> 30%) during the growing season. Four different patterns of seasonal variation were found: (1) large seasonal variations of element concentrations (∼80%) with maximum concentrations in winter and lowest concentrations in the summer months (Al, Fe, Cr, Mg, Pb, and Ti), (2) smaller seasonal variations (∼50%) with maximum concentrations in winter and lowest concentrations in summer (Ba, Ca, Cd, Cu, Sr), (3) slight seasonal variations (∼30%) with maximum concentrations in the summer (K), and (4) slight seasonal changes (∼30%) with maximum concentrations in the winter (Mg and Zn). The relative biological variance of element concentrations between 9 different stands of Polytrichum formosum decreases in the following sequence: Ti, Al, Pb, Fe, Cr, Ni, Ba, Ca, Cu, Cd, K, Mg, Sr, Zn. The relative biological variance of individual elements is generally lower than the variance in element concentrations caused by seasonal changes. Because of its high biological variance for most elements investigated (seasonal as well as between different stands of Polytrichum formosum) this moss should only be used as a passive bioindicator, if all other environmental parameters are standardized.

Time‐and‐site integrated long‐term biomonitoring of chemical elements by means of mosses

To use Polytrichum formosum for biomonitoring the heavy metal status of the environment and to obtain further information on the long‐term behaviour of Polytrichum concerning chemical substances, 12 chemical elements (Ba, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn) were quantitatively determined by AAS and AES/ICP measurements after sampling over regular intervals from 1985 to 1991. As already found in previous studies, all chemical elements are characterized by typical seasonal variations with maximum concentrations in the winter and lowest concentrations in the summer month due to the dilution effect of chemical elements caused by the higher biomass production of Polytrichum formosum in spring. An exception is the element K, snowing contrary behaviour throughout all the years with highest concentrations in the summer month which can be explained by the important physiological and osmolytical function of this element (e.g. for movement of the leaves). According to lower emission rates the concentratio...

Retrospective analysis of heavy metal concentrations at selected locations in the Federal Republic of Germany using moss material from a herbarium

Abstract In this study, herbarium moss samples taken from selected locations and in different years between 1845 and 1974 were compared with samples from similar locations taken in the context of the German moss monitoring programme of 1991. Samples have been analyzed for the heavy metals arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), vanadium (V) and zinc (Zn). In the herbarium material, the lowest concentrations were found in the early period between 1845 and 1901; the levels rose over the course of time. In general, the element concentrations of the moss samples taken in 1991 are lower than those of the mosses from the herbarium. However, the reverse is true of the elements V and Ni. The differences in concentrations found between the herbarium material and the 1991 moss monitoring samples document both the effects of air pollution resulting from progressive industrialization in the earlier periods and the reduction of heavy metal emissions due to improved methods of preventing air pollution at the present time. Moreover, the results for V and Ni can be interpreted as showing a change in the use of primary sources of energy.

On the road from environmental biomonitoring to human health aspects: monitoring atmospheric heavy metal deposition by epiphytic/epigeic plants: present status and future needs

For the past few years, a strong and intensive combined study by analytical scientists and biologists on bioindication and biomonitoring has developed. To achieve a more public-related prophylactic healthcare feature derived from these biotechniques in the future, the collaboration between analytical scientists, ecotoxicologists and especially human toxicologists has to be strongly intensified and promoted. For this purpose, different forms of education and teaching of students on an international level combined with common research projects encompassing the different scientific fields and philosophies are important keys for common success.

Geographic classification of heavy metal concentrations in mosses and stream sediments in the Federal Republic of Germany

The results of the first German moss monitoring programme to estimate heavy metal pollution in the Federal Republic of Germany were combined with other large-scale investigations carried out in Germany and then classified geographically in a new form. Using Monte Carlo assisted factor analysis, six factors indicating sources of pollution were identified from the sets of element data from the moss monitoring project (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Ti, V, Zn) and the data sets for SO2 and particulate. The geographic distribution patterns of the factor values showed the regions in which the various sources are to be found. By combining the data the primarily anthropogenic chromium concentrations of the mosses were compared with the mainly geogenic chromium concentrations of the stream sediments in the form of examples. After normalization, the transformed chromium concentrations were transferred to a map of the entire area using inverse distance weighting. Anthropogenic and geogenic influences are being discussed on the basis of the results.

Higher lead concentrations in the environment of former West Germany after the fall of the ‘Berlin Wall’

Biomonitoring for lead and chromium in the moss Polytrichum formosum has shown that in the years before the fall of the Berlin wall, the loading of these elements was decreasing. However in 1989/1990, localized increases in the concentration of lead in this moss in the vicinity of east-west motorways were detected. This was most likely due to the greater use of leaded petrol in eastern Germany. This observation is backed up by results from Bavaria at the Czech boarder, where localized increases in lead concentrations in the environment were found during this time period. As a result of the overall generally decreasing heavy metal loading in plants, deficiencies of essential macronutrients (Mg, Ca, K) seem to be lower also. This could be interpreted from data on Polytrichum formosum which showed an increase in these elements.

Heavy metals in emergent trees and pioneers from tropical forest with special reference to forest fires and local pollution sources in Sarawak, Malaysia

Leaf samples of tropical trees, i.e. Dryobalanops lanceolata (Kapur paji), Dipterocarpaceae and Macaranga spp. (Mahang), Euphorbiaceae were analyzed for 21 chemical elements. The pioneer Macaranga spp. exhibited higher concentrations for the majority of elements compared to the emergent species of Dryobalanops lanceolata, which was attributed to the higher physiological activity of the fast growing pioneer species compared to emergent trees. Lead showed rather high concentrations in several samples from the Bakam re-forestation site. This is suggested to be caused by emissions through brick manufacturing and related activities in the vicinity. A comparison of Dryobalanops lanceolata samples collected in 1993, 1995 and 1997 in the Lambir Hills National Park revealed that certain heavy metals, i.e. Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Ti showed higher values in 1997 compared to the previous years, which could indicate an atmospheric input from the haze caused by the extensive forest fires raging in Borneo and other parts of Southeast Asia.