Verena Pritchard

Preschool executive functioning abilities predict early mathematics achievement.

Impairments in executive function have been documented in school-age children with mathematical learning difficulties. However, the utility and specificity of preschool executive function abilities in predicting later mathematical achievement are poorly understood. This study examined linkages between childrens developing executive function abilities at age 4 and childrens subsequent achievement in mathematics at age 6, 1 year after school entry. The study sample consisted of a regionally representative cohort of 104 children followed prospectively from ages 2 to 6 years. At age 4, children completed a battery of executive function tasks that assessed planning, set shifting, and inhibitory control. Teachers completed the preschool version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Clinical and classroom measures of childrens mathematical achievement were collected at age 6. Results showed that childrens performance on set shifting, inhibitory control, and general executive behavior measures during the preschool period accounted for substantial variability in childrens early mathematical achievement at school. These associations persisted even after individual differences in general cognitive ability and reading achievement were taken into account. Findings suggest that early measures of executive function may be useful in identifying children who may experience difficulties learning mathematical skills and concepts. They also suggest that the scaffolding of these executive skills could potentially be a useful additional component in early mathematics education.

Early school-based learning difficulties in children born very preterm

BACKGROUND Educational underachievement is a major morbidity associated with very preterm (VPT) birth. However, few studies have examined early school outcomes with most employing global, clinic based measures. OBJECTIVE To examine the early school achievement in a cohort of children born VPT and studied to age 6 years. METHODS A regional cohort of 102 VPT children (</=33 weeks GA) were followed prospectively alongside a comparison group of 108 full term (FT) children born during the same period (1998-2000). At 6 years corrected age, all children underwent a comprehensive neurodevelopmental evaluation that included the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ-III), teacher report and national numeracy and literacy test results. Rates of specific learning disabilities (LD) were also examined. RESULTS VPT children performed less well than FT children on WJ-III subtests (ps<.05), national tests (ps<.01), and in all curricular areas rated by teachers (ps<.01) except expressive language. Even VPT children without severe neurodevelopmental impairment scored lower on the WJ-III math, national tests (ps<.05) and were 2-3 times more likely to show delays (ps<.02) in math (43% vs. 19%), written language (36% vs. 22%), language comprehension (26% vs. 14%), handwriting (36% vs. 17%), spelling (38% vs. 30%) and physical education (33% vs. 11%). They were also twice as likely as FT children to have math LD (47% vs. 21%). CONCLUSIONS By age 6, a substantial proportion of VPT children are lagging behind their FT peers across multiple curriculum areas, with difficulties being most prominent in math. Findings highlight the need for early identification and educational supports to help maximise VPT childrens learning opportunities during the transition to school.

Neonatal white matter abnormalities predict global executive function impairment in children born very preterm

Using prospective longitudinal data from 110 very preterm and 113 full term children, this article describes the executive functioning abilities of very preterm children at age 4, and examines relations between the extent of white matter abnormality on neonatal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and later executive function outcomes. Very preterm children performed less well than full term children on measures of planning ability, cognitive flexibility, selective attention, and inhibitory control. Executive impairments at age 4 were confined to preterm children with mild or moderate–severe white matter abnormalities on MRI. Findings support the importance of cerebral white matter integrity for later executive function.

Negative priming effects in children engaged in nonspatial tasks: Evidence for early development of an intact inhibitory mechanism

Three experiments are reported that examined conceptual negative priming effects in children 5 to 12 years of age. Experiment 1 used a negative priming variant of a flanker task requiring the naming of a central color blob flanked by irrelevant distractors. Experiment 2 used a negative priming variant of the Stroop color-word task. Experiment 3 used a same-different matching task with novel 3-D shapes. Results revealed significant and equivalent magnitudes of negative priming across the tested age groups for all 3 tasks. It is concluded that the inhibitory mechanism underlying conceptual (i.e., identity or semantic) negative priming in visual selective attention tasks is intact in young children. Because the findings and conclusions diverge from the developmental literature on negative priming, the authors attempt to reconcile the contradictions by pinning down the reasons for the discrepancies.

Very preterm birth: maternal experiences of the neonatal intensive care environment

Objective:Examine sources, predictors and child outcomes associated with neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)-related stress for mothers of infants born very preterm (VPT).Study Design:Participants were 133 mothers of VPT infants admitted to a regional level-III NICU. At term equivalent, mothers completed the Parental Stressor Scale: NICU and were interviewed about their psychological well-being and family circumstances. Infant clinical data were also collected. At corrected age 4 years, 49 children were assessed for cognition, language and socio-emotional development.Result:Mothers reported moderate to low stress, with parental role alteration considered most stressful and parent–staff communications least stressful. Predictors of overall stress included maternal educational underachievement, stressful life events, postnatal depression and infant unsettled-irregular behavior. NICU-related stress was associated with child anxiety and poorer language development.Conclusion:Parental well-being is an important focus of care in the neonatal setting. Strategies are needed to optimize early engagement and reduce stress levels to assist improved child outcomes.

Neonatal cerebral morphometry and later risk of persistent inattention/hyperactivity in children born very preterm

BACKGROUND Attention problems are among the most prevalent neurobehavioral morbidities affecting very preterm (VPT) born children. The first study aim was to document rates of persistent attention/hyperactivity problems from ages 4 to 9 years in a regional cohort of VPT born children. The second aim was to examine the extent to which persistent problems were related to cerebral white matter abnormality and structural development on neonatal MRI. METHODS Data were drawn from a prospective longitudinal study of 110 VPT (≤32 weeks gestation) and 113 full-term (FT) children born from 1998 to 2000. At term equivalent, all VPT and 10 FT children underwent cerebral structural MRI, with scans analyzed qualitatively for white matter abnormalities and quantitatively for cortical and subcortical gray matter, myelinated and unmyelinated white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid volumes. At ages 4, 6, and 9 years, each childs parent and teacher completed the Inattention/Hyperactivity subscale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. RESULTS VPT born children had a fivefold increased risk of persistent attention/hyperactivity problems compared with FT children (13.1% vs. 2.8%; p = .002). No association was found between neonatal white matter abnormalities and later persistent inattention/hyperactivity risk (p ≥ .24). In contrast, measures of cerebral structural development including volumetric estimates of total cerebral tissue and cerebrospinal fluid relative to intracranial volume were associated with an increased risk of persistent attention/hyperactivity problems in VPT born children (p = .001). The dorsal prefrontal region showed the largest volumetric reduction (↓3.2-8.2 mL). These brain-behavior associations persisted and in some cases, strengthened after covariate adjustment for postmenstrual age at MRI, gender, and family socioeconomic status. CONCLUSIONS Just over one in 10 VPT born children are subject to early onset and persistent attention/hyperactivity problems during childhood. These problems appear to reflect, at least in part, neonatal disturbances in cerebral growth and development rather than the effects of white matter injury.

Identifying Very Preterm Children at Educational Risk Using a School Readiness Framework

OBJECTIVES: Children born very preterm (VPT) are at high risk of educational delay, yet few guidelines exist for the early identification of those at greatest risk. Using a school readiness framework, this study examined relations between preschool neurodevelopmental functioning and educational outcomes to age 9 years. METHODS: The sample consisted of a regional cohort of 110 VPT (≤32 weeks’ gestation) and 113 full-term children born during 1998–2000. At corrected age 4 years, children completed a multidisciplinary assessment of their health/motor development, socioemotional adjustment, core learning skills, language, and general cognition. At ages 6 and 9, children’s literacy and numeracy skills were assessed using the Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. RESULTS: Across all readiness domains, VPT children were at high risk of delay/impairment (odds ratios 2.5–3.5). Multiple problems were also more common (47% vs 16%). At follow-up, almost two-thirds of VPT children were subject to significant educational delay in either literacy, numeracy or both compared with 29% to 31% of full-term children (odds ratios 3.4–4.4). The number of readiness domains affected at age 4 strongly predicted later educational risk, especially when multiple problems were present. Receiver operating characteristic analysis confirmed ≥2 readiness problems as the optimal threshold for identifying VPT children at educational risk. CONCLUSIONS: School readiness offers a promising framework for the early identification of VPT children at high educational risk. Findings support the utility of ≥2 affected readiness domains as an effective criterion for referral for educational surveillance and/or additional support during the transition to school.

Avoiding the Potential Pitfalls of Using Negative Priming Tasks in Developmental Studies: Assessing Inhibitory Control in Children, Adolescents, and Adults

Despite being ignored, visual distractors often produce traceable negative priming (NP) effects that can be used to investigate inhibitory processes. Robust NP effects are typically found with young adults, but not with children. Using 2 different NP tasks, the authors compared NP in 5 different age groups spanning 5 to 25 years of age. The 1st task revealed comparable NP between all age groups, but a linear decrease in NP through childhood to early adulthood. In the 2nd task, NP decreased linearly into adulthood, with children actually showing larger NP than adults. This Age Group ? NP interaction was eliminated, however, when reaction time data were log transformed to control for age differences in overall processing speed. When appropriately transformed data were used, both experiments showed that NP was intact and comparable between children, adolescents, and adults, and suggested that an inhibitory process is fully developed by early childhood. The results highlight how potential pitfalls might be avoided when comparing NP in children and adults.

Emotional and behavioural adjustment of children born very preterm at early school age.

Aims:  This paper describes the emotional and behavioural adjustment of children born very preterm (VPT) at early school age. Of particular interest was the degree of agreement between parents and teachers, and the extent of situational (parent or teacher) and pervasive (parent and teacher reported) adjustment problems.

Preschool executive control on the Shape School task: measurement considerations and utility.

Executive functions (EF) necessary for purposeful goal-directed activities undergo rapid change and development during the preschool years. However, of the few psychometrically valid measures of EF suitable for use with preschoolers, information on task sensitivity and predictive validity is scant. The neurodevelopmental correlates of early executive difficulties are also largely unknown. In this study, the discriminant and predictive validity of the recently developed Shape School task (Espy, Bull, Martin, & Stroup, 2006) was examined with data from a regional sample of 209 preschool children at age 4 years. A 2-tiered measurement approach was used, with task completion examined in addition to efficiency. Childrens performance was also examined in relation to functioning in a range of neurodevelopmental domains. The Shape School task showed some usefulness in capturing expected differences between at-risk and typically developing children. Performance loaded heavily on language and global cognitive abilities. However, several other factors were also implicated, including attention, motor skills, and ocular control. In addition, task completion and efficiency scores appeared to reflect different aspects of performance, and their associations with neurodevelopmental function and later academic achievement on the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement at age 6 years also differed. Implications for the application of the Shape School task are discussed.