Veselin Dragišić

Hydrochemical characteristics of mine waters from abandoned mining sites in Serbia and their impact on surface water quality

Upon completion of exploration and extraction of mineral resources, many mining sites have been abandoned without previously putting environmental protection measures in place. As a consequence, mine waters originating from such sites are discharged freely into surface water. Regional scale analyses were conducted to determine the hydrochemical characteristics of mine waters from abandoned sites featuring metal (Cu, Pb–Zn, Au, Fe, Sb, Mo, Bi, Hg) deposits, non-metallic minerals (coal, Mg, F, B) and uranium. The study included 80 mine water samples from 59 abandoned mining sites. Their cation composition was dominated by Ca2+, while the most common anions were found to be SO42− and HCO3−. Strong correlations were established between the pH level and metal (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu) concentrations in the mine waters. Hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to parameters generally indicative of pollution, such as pH, TDS, SO42−, Fe total, and As total. Following this approach, mine water samples were grouped into three main clusters and six subclusters, depending on their potential environmental impact. Principal component analysis was used to group together variables that share the same variance. The extracted principal components indicated that sulfide oxidation and weathering of silicate and carbonate rocks were the primary processes, while pH buffering, adsorption and ion exchange were secondary drivers of the chemical composition of the analyzed mine waters. Surface waters, which received the mine waters, were examined. Analysis showed increases of sulfate and metal concentrations and general degradation of surface water quality.

Regional-scale screening of groundwater pollution risk induced by historical mining activities in Serbia

Europe has a long mining history, with some mining sites dating back to prehistoric times. Mining activities have boosted industrial development in many European countries; however, on the other hand, they left behind large degraded areas and polluted sites. This mining heritage, from small-scale mines to large industrial mining complexes, adversely affects natural resources and the environment. Exploration and mining of mineral ores have been quite extensive in Serbia. Most exploited were as follows: coal, copper, Pb–Zn ores, accompanying gold and silver and antimony. Groundwater resources are frequently impacted by mining operations, both during mining activities and after mine closure. For proper protection and management of groundwater resources, it is necessary to identify and characterize pollution sources within groundwater bodies. Abandoned mining sites, along with associated facilities for the preparation and processing of ores, waste rock disposal sites and tailings, constitute potential hazards and can have a negative effect on groundwater quality. This paper describes a methodology developed for regional-scale screening of the groundwater pollution risk from abandoned mining sites. As a first step, intrinsic groundwater vulnerability was assessed on the basis of readily available data. As potential polluters, 59 abandoned mining sites were included in the analysis. The hazard identification process comprised physical characterization of mining sites and hydrochemical assessment of mine water originating from those sites. A simple indexing method was developed for hazard and risk quantification. To assess the spatial distribution of the groundwater pollution risk, all data were incorporated and analyzed in a GIS environment. As a result of initial screening, several abandoned, mostly metallic mines were found to have higher-risk ratings for groundwater contamination. The methodology based on examples from Serbia can also be used in other regions for developing management strategies and directing of remediation activities.

Hydrogeologic structures in two Serbian spa towns - Sijarinska Banja and Selters Banja

The objective of the paper is to identify the boundaries of hydrogeologic structures in which natural mineral waters occur, using two examples: old mineral water (Sijarinska Banja) and young mineral water (Selters Banja). The research addresses the distance from recharge zones, depth of occurrence, and points of discharge. Apart from the three spatial dimensions, the study also includes the time dimension – water age. The following parameters are examined: geologichydrogeologic conditions in the places of occurrence of mineral water, connection between mineral water and permeable fault zones, distance of surface water divides, previously-defined maximum possible depths of occurrence, possible flow rates, and the determined age. If the flow followed a straight line, the maximum distance of the recharge zone would be up to 7 m for the young and up to 11 km for the old mineral water. However, it is obvious that this is never the case in fractured systems, given that water travels much longer distances from the point of entry to the point of drainage from aquifers. Assessment of geologic-hydrogeologic and hydrodynamic conditions, relative to the determined age of the mineral water, leads to the conclusion that the distance between the recharge and drainage zones can be less than 5 km. The paper shows that insight into the depth of infiltration into permeable fault zones can also be gained by studying the depth of circulation relative to known hydrodynamic zones. The inference is that the largest amount of groundwater is restored in the hydrodynamic zone of slow groundwater renewal, which is below a depth of 1.5 km at Sijarinska Banja and below 1.3 km at Selters Banja.

Prevent Leakage and Mixture of Karst Groundwater

Choosing optimal dam sites is a very complicated task due to the nature of karst and the insecurity of water storage often resulting in leakage from reservoirs. An appropriate project concept prior to exploration can significantly reduce the risks of water losses or at least minimize them to acceptable levels, while the absence or reduction of exploratory works can increase them. Many analyses show that once the reservoir is filled up, groundwater flow currently oriented toward the future reservoir would saturate the upper part of the karstified rocks, reactivate currently unsaturated (fossilized conduits) pathways, and form a reverse discharge outside of the reservoir area. The geological, hydrogeological, speleological, and other special investigation procedures should be permanent activities during the design stage, during the construction of the dam site and filling of the reservoir, as well as during exploitation. Having a good map, database, models, and geological, hydrogeological, and other 2D and 3D layers increases the chances of choosing a successful dam site and minimizes the possibilities of further leakage from reservoirs below the dam site and through the reservoir and dam site embankment. This chapter summarizes the necessary procedures for the acquisition of some of the basic information for choosing an optimal dam site and preventing leakage from reservoirs in karst formations through chosen characteristic examples. Several case studies involving mineral ore extraction and mine drainage in a karst aquifer environment are presented in this section. Mining operations often entail extremely high rates of groundwater inflow, which is a threat to safe mining. Insufficient knowledge about the hydrogeological setting and a lack of preventative drainage often lead to sudden inrushes. In the past, this has caused rapid mine flooding, material losses, and even human casualties. In the case of evaporite karst, ground subsidence resulting from rather fast dissolution of evaporite rocks is a special problem. The practical experience discussed in the section shows that various measures are undertaken to drain mining operations (including drainage wells on the ground surface, underground dewatering boreholes, drainage galleries, drainage shafts, and the like), as well as that grouting of karst conduits and caverns has not always been effective. The quality of karst groundwater, before it enters the zone of mining operations, is generally good. However, after the groundwater comes into contact with ore deposits, this quality frequently deteriorates. Numerous examples show that karst groundwater, when abstracted before it reaches mining operations, can be used for drinking water supply, irrigation water supply, and other similar purposes. The majority of karst terrains are characterized by a high degree of heterogeneity. The results obtained by applying methods for the assessment of local karstification (e.g., borehole tests) often cannot be reliable to extrapolate to a wider area. The use of remote sensing provides the opportunity to assess the spatial distribution of karstification in the subregional scale. Analysis of satellite and aerial images allows the identification of geomorphological and tectonic forms that may indicate the highly karstified zones. From the factors that indicate the karstification, and which can be mapped by remote sensing, two factors are selected: surface karstification (K sf) and density of faults (T f). By overlapping maps of these two factors using geographical information systems (GIS) techniques, the final map expressed through a KARST (karstification assessed by remote sensing techniques) index is obtained. For the first time, the mapping approach has been applied to the catchment area of Karuc springs (Montenegro). By surveying the catchment area after the preparation of the map of the KARST index, it was noted that the assessed degree of karstification by using remote sensing mainly matches to the field assessment of shallow karstification. The application of this approach provides an image of the spatial distribution of karstification, even for areas that are inaccessible for direct field research. The obtained map can be used as a basis for solving some of engineering problems in karst that are related to the regulation of water, extraction of groundwater, and protection of karst aquifers from contamination. The mixture of fresh groundwater and surface water is a frequent problem in karst, and most problematic for the sustainable use of fresh groundwater. This is mostly a result of a high permeability and low attenuation capacity of karst aquifers, particularly those formed in open (unconfined) structures. The problem becomes more complicated when karst aquifer is in contact with seawater and tapping coastal aquifers and distinguishing fresh from seawaters is regularly a very difficult task. For this purpose, the Phoenicians constructed special intake structures and still today, many attempts to address this problem are made and similar devices constructed. The regions in which a large number of submarine springs exist are the Mediterranean basin, Florida, the Caribbean basin, the Black Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Pacific islands. The section includes an explanation of the classical Ghyben-Herzberg formula, which defines the relationship and interface between fresh and salty water, but also states that its application, as in the case of Darcy law, should be used with caution in the case of karst aquifers. Several chosen case studies from different locations (Yucatan Mexico, Libya, France, and Montenegro) provide an overview of problematic and very difficult management of littoral karstic aquifers. It is often the case that even implementation of sophisticated engineering works and controlled pumping of fresh groundwater cannot completely diminish salt water intrusion.