Vibeke Asmussen Frank

Lessons from conducting trans-national Internet-mediated participatory research with hidden populations of cannabis cultivators.

BACKGROUND Internet-mediated research methods are increasingly used to access hidden populations. The International Cannabis Cultivation Questionnaire (ICCQ) is an online survey designed to facilitate international comparisons into the relatively under-researched but increasingly significant phenomenon of domestic cannabis cultivation. The Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium has used the ICCQ to survey over 6000 cannabis cultivators across 11 countries. In this paper, we describe and reflect upon our methodological approach, focusing on the digital and traditional recruitment methods used to access this hidden population and the challenges of working across multiple countries, cultures and languages. METHODS Descriptive statistics showing eligibility and completion rates and recruitment source by country of residence. RESULTS Over three quarters of eligible respondents who were presented with the survey were included in the final sample of n=6528. English-speaking countries expended more effort to recruit participants than non-English-speaking countries. The most effective recruitment modes were cannabis websites/groups (33%), Facebook (14%) and news articles (11%). While respondents recruited through news articles were older, growing practice variables were strikingly similar between these main recruitment modes. CONCLUSION Through this process, we learnt that there are trade-offs between hosting multiple surveys in each country vs. using one integrated database. We also found that although perceived anonymity is routinely assumed to be a benefit of using digital research methodologies, there are significant limits to research participant anonymity in the current era of mass digital surveillance, especially when the target group is particularly concerned about evading law enforcement. Finally, we list a number of specific recommendations for future researchers utilising Internet-mediated approaches to researching hidden populations.

Small-scale cannabis growers in Denmark and Finland.

Aims: To compare domestic cannabis cultivation in Denmark and Finland to describe national characteristics in small-scale cannabis growing. Design: A Web survey conducted among small-scale cannabis growers in Denmark (June to November 2008) and Finland (May to June 2009). Participants: Current cannabis growers (Denmark, 401; Finland, 1,054). Measurements: Comparisons in regard to social background, growing history, practices, purposes and motives of growing, and perceptions of risks. Findings: Cannabis was cultivated primarily for own use, but sharing with friends and avoiding criminal circles also were significant motives for growing. Finnish growers prioritized indoor cultivation, whereas the Danes were more in favor of open-air plantations. Risks of getting caught by the police were observed to be greater in Finland. Growing for medical purposes was twice as prevalent in Finland as in Denmark. Conclusions: Cannabis growing is a stronger and more novel phenomenon in Finland than in Denmark, but both countries have been influenced by international trends. Finnish and Danish small-scale cannabis cultivators can be considered to be ideologically oriented lifestyle growers. Differences in the magnitude of the phenomenon may reflect differences in the availability and quality of cannabis in national drug markets. The Internet had promoted the spreading of the trend.

Prison-based drug treatment in Nordic political discourse : an elastic discursive construct

Prison-based drug treatment (PDT) has increased markedly in the Nordic countries over the last 15 years. Based on data from Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden, we outline the historical development of PDT and analyse the rationales employed in the political discourse in the Nordic countries legitimizing this development. These rationales relate to the reduction of criminality, zero tolerance, rights and the modern welfare state, and managerialism. Though these rationales may appear dissimilar, they have been combined with relative ease in the political discourse. Actually, this elasticity may partly explain the popularity of PDT. We discuss whether the increased use of PDT reflects a criminalization of social problems and signals a rebirth of the treatment ideology in Nordic prisons.

Growing medicine: Small-scale cannabis cultivation for medical purposes in six different countries

BACKGROUND The production and consumption of cannabis for the treatment of medical conditions is of increasing importance internationally; however, research on different aspects of the phenomenon is still scarce. In this article, we report findings from a cross-cultural study of small-scale cannabis cultivation for medical purposes. This kind of comparative study has not been done previously. METHODS The data were gathered with a help of web surveys conducted by the Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium (GCCRC) in Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany and the UK (N=5313). In the analysis we compare reports of medical motives, for what conditions cannabis is used, whether users have diagnoses for these conditions and whether the use of cannabis been recommended as a treatment of those conditions by a medical doctor. Descriptive statistics are used to show the main commonalities and noteworthy disparities across different countries. RESULTS Findings from countries were quite similar, even though several national differences in details were found. Growing cannabis for medical purposes was widespread. The majority of medical growers reported cultivating cannabis for serious conditions. Most of them did have a formal diagnosis. One fifth had got a recommendation from their doctor, but in most cases cannabis use was self-medication which was not discussed with their doctors. CONCLUSION There is a wider demand for licit access for medical cannabis than currently available in these countries. Ideologically, medical growers can be seen distancing themselves from both the legal and illicit drug markets. From a harm reduction perspective, it is worrying that, in the context of present health and control policies in these countries, many medical growers are using cannabis to treat serious medical conditions without proper medical advice and doctors guidance.

Danish drug policy—shifting from liberalism to repression

In the course of the 2000s Denmark has experienced a shift in drug policy in general and of cannabis policy in particular. Danish drug policy used to be known as liberal, but is now saturated with ‘zero‐tolerance’ and ‘tough on crimes’ rhetoric. What happened, and what have the consequences been? This article describes recent changes, focusing on the closing of Pusher Street in Christiania, Copenhagen, one of northern Europes largest open cannabis markets. This most spectacular outcome can also be seen as a conquered symbol of a former liberal ‐ and for many too lenient ‐ drug policy.

Shifts in Opioid Substitution Treatment Policy in Denmark from 2000–2011

This article discusses how opioid substitution treatment policy has developed from 2000 to 2011 in Denmark. Empirically, it takes its point of departure in a stakeholder analysis including 17 qualitative interviews with stakeholders who have played important roles in this field. Analytically, it is inspired by Kingdons concepts of agenda and policy window. Three major shifts are identified: a shift from psychosocial to medical thinking and practice, from an abstinence driven ideology to health care, and from perceptions of passive clients to user involvement. These shifts are discussed in relation to the legal context of substitute prescribing medicine.

Stakeholders in opioid substitution treatment policy: similarities and differences in six European countries.

Based on the research papers within this special issue, this overview discusses similarities and differences in stakeholding in drug user opioid substitution treatment policy in Britain, Denmark, Italy, Austria, Poland, and Finland. It explores factors that have influenced stakeholder activity, including the importance of crisis, the impact of evidence, the availability of resources, the wider political context, the influence of moral frameworks and ideologies, and the pressure of external influences. The paper highlights the important differences in the emergence and evolution of stakeholder groups and in the political, cultural, and economic circumstances, which both constrain and enable their activities.

Prison drug treatment in Denmark: A historical outline and an analysis of the political debate

Aims The article outlines the historical development of prison drug treatment (PDT) in Denmark in order to understand the present situation where PDT is viewed as a natural benign practice. We also identify the different rationales within the political debate on PDT since its rapid expansion in 2000. Data Historical and policy documents, grey literature, interviews with key informants in the field. Results Four historical periods are identified, from a period when drug treatment was unwelcome in prisons to a re-emergence of the rehabilitation ideal over the last 15 years, when PDT appears unquestioned and its popularity has exploded. Five dissimilar and at times conflicting rationales have been present in the political debate legitimising this policy shift. Conclusion Part of the popularity of PDT stems from the fact that it has been used in political debates in order to justify a range of different and even conflicting objectives. With changing penal discourse, PDT may again become unwanted in prison settings.

Three enactments of drugs in Danish prison drug treatment: Illegal drugs, medicine and constrainers

Abstract Drugs are an increasingly salient concern in many European prisons. Drug policies are made, drugs are controlled, used and prescribed and drug use is treated and sanctioned. In light of the growing significance of drugs in prison life, we analyse the different ways of drugs that are enacted in Danish drug treatment programmes, based on insights derived from Science and Technology Studies. We ground our analysis with data from two qualitative research projects conducted between 2007 and 2010 and between 2011 and 2014. In all, eight prisons were involved in the two studies. Our analysis reveals three distinctive drug enactments characterised by rather different practises, discourses and narratives: drugs as illegal substances, as medicine and as constrainers. Furthermore, we examine how policy makers, prison officers, health personnel, counsellors and prisoners contribute to the construction and organisation of these three enactments, along with the practical and discursive domains in which this work takes place. We conclude by assessing some of the implications of these different enactments of drugs for prisoners’ subjectivities.

From Zero Tolerance to Non-Enforcement: Creating a New Space for Drug Policing in Copenhagen, Denmark

The neighborhood of Vesterbro in Copenhagen has housed the largest open drug scene in Denmark since the 1980s. In recent years there has been a remarkable change in the police strategy towards this drug scene from zero tolerance to a non-enforcement strategy. This article presents a case study of this change in strategy and its implications for more general discussions about drug control and harm reduction. With inspiration from the governmentality literature, in particular how government involves the construction of governable spaces, and police research that emphasizes the territorial aspects of policing, the article seeks to characterize the difference between the two drug control strategies at Vesterbro. The analysis is based on original research and secondary literature. The article concludes that the non-enforcement strategy opens up the drug scene to new kinds of intervention by police and social welfare institutions, and that it changes the relationship between social welfare provision and policing.