Victor E. Kappeler

Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units

This paper examines overlooked developments in contemporary policing: the growth in the number of, and a significant shift in the character of. United States police paramilitary units (PPUs). A survey of all police departments serving cities of 50,000 people or more provides the first comprehensive national data on PPUs. Findings document a rise in the number of PPUs, an escalation in their level of activity, a normalization of these units into mainstream policing, and a direct link between PPUs and the U.S. military. These findings reflect the aggressive turn many law enforcement agencies are assuming behind the rhetoric of community and problem-oriented policing reforms.

To serve and pursue: Exploring police sexual violence against women

This study identifies and examines an unexplored criminological phenomenon, termed here police sexual violence. Analysis and interpretation of quantitative data and case studies are used to explore the subject. Two data sets, one from federal litigation cases and the other from a media source, provide the material for examining the known incidence, distribution, and nature of this form of police crime and sexual violence against women. The data include 124 cases of police sexual violence; 37 of these are sexual assault and rape cases committed by on-duty police officers against female citizens. The analysis of case studies draws on and integrates feminist and police studies literature, allowing for the development of a police sexual violence continuum and the exploration of theoretical, conceptual, and practical issues. The conclusion explores the cultural and structural context within which police sexual violence against women occurs.

A textual critique of community policing: police adaption to high modernity

Employs the semiotic method to explore community policing reform and its use of language as a form of social control. Uses postmodern theoretical and methodological filters to clarify the discussion. Sees community policing more as a realignment of police institution’s language and symbols to better fit changes in society.

Normalising Police Militarisation, Living in Denial

The militarisation of policing in the USA continues to be a critical area of enquiry for both the police and the society. Recent events in Boston speak to the centrality of this area of research for understanding state responses to an array of social problems, including violence, terrorism and civil unrest. The police capacity to organise and distribute state-sponsored violence as well as the ability to shape institutional appearances while doing so, impacts issues of civil rights, domestic order and the quality of political life in a democracy. The importance of the topic, coupled with the fact that we have made a modest contribution to the literature on this phenomenon, led us to read Garth den Heyers essay with keen interest.

Hailing the police, occupy politics and counter-militarization: a reply to Matthew Morgan

This is a reply to:Morgan, Matthew. 2014. “The containment of Occupy: militarized police forces and social control in America.” Global Discourse. 4 (2–3): 267–284. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23269995.2014.888618.

Community Policing and Fear of Crime

The fear of crime is a legitimate police concern. The police should understand the ways fear is distributed across populations and use this understanding to formulate programs to assure people that they are safe. Reducing fear of crime is just as legitimate as reducing crime itself. Fear may have more detrimental effects on larger numbers of people than crime itself. There are a number of causes of fear of crime. Fear emanates from past victimization, disorder, and community interactional processes. This shows that fear of crime is a complex social phenomenon that cannot be adequately addressed with simple programs. Police departments have attempted to reduce fear of crime through a variety of programs. These programs have centered around providing people with information about the police and crime, decentralized operations through storefronts and mini-police stations, and working more closely with people through walking and bicycle patrols, victim re-contact programs, and other programs that emphasize higher quality contacts with people. Community policing, as a direct result of its emphasis on people, ensures that the police reduce fear. Police managers must continue this trend by developing strategies that focus on specific problems and fear issues within the community and having more positive contacts with people. This brand of community policing will assist the police in their pursuit of crime reduction and enhancement of the quality of life.

Community Policing and Special Populations

The community policing has profound changes on the police in terms of their treatment of various groups. Community policing results in the direct communication between the police and the public to ensure that all constituent groups are considered and serviced. The potential benefits from community policing far outweigh its potential problems. Many groups, often those who suffer the highest rates of victimization, are literally disenfranchised from the American political system, and community policing is the most appropriate way for the police to identify these individuals and groups and to attempt to bring them back into the system. For example, the homeless do not have a fixed address so they generally are not represented in the political system, juveniles are too young, and many immigrants have no vote and are too fearful to become involved in the political process. Community policing as a political modality allows such individuals to have input into the government and receive some measure of services. Community policings ability to involve the disenfranchised and to reach out to groups who are reluctant to contact the police offers everyone in the community grass-roots input into the police process. Police departments and police officers must recognize the existence of diverging cultures. Police officers must be trained in understanding and dealing with different types of people. This may include training on customs as well as language. This is not to limit the police responsibility to ethnic or national cultures; the poor, the homeless, and other disadvantaged groups represent cultures with distinct sets of values and living conditions that must be understood by the police officers. Police departments must embody the philosophy of multi-culturalism and service throughout the agency.

The Police and Community Perception

This chapter examines peoples perceptions of the police and some of the factors that shape these perceptions. Historically, police officers reasoned that all persons should be treated the same, although this has not been the case. Regardless, officers should understand that police-community relations are important and that their interactions with people over time will have an impact on those relations. Research shows that minorities, persons living in disadvantaged areas, and younger people often have a more negative view of the police. Gender seems not to affect peoples attitudes. The implications of these findings are that the police must be aware of differences in community perceptions, and officers must learn to adjust their behavior and reactions to people based on these differences. When officers recognize ethnic and cultural differences, they are more likely to have a productive encounter with people. Finally, this chapter examined some of the broad problems that have impeded better relations with the community. When a department takes a proactive approach to managing potential problem areas, it essentially reduces the probability of police-community relations problems.

Problem Solving and Policing Problem Spaces

This chapter addresses problem solving in policing. Problem solving and community partnerships are the two principle components of community policing. Problem solving represents a strategy that goes beyond traditional policing. It necessitates that the police not only respond to crime, disorder, and calls for service, but also investigate their root causes. Once the causes are identified, the police can more effectively deal with problems. If the police successfully attend to problems, especially dangerous places or hot spots that generate large numbers of calls and crime, the police will become more effective and efficient. Thus, problem solving and community policing can have a significant impact on the police department and its community.

A History of Communities and Policing

The history of modern policing serves to show why the emergence of community policing is a hopeful response to a system that is not in touch with its ideal function, which is to involve all people in improving society. Policing shifted from an informal to a formal system; this change also meant a shift away from direct community input and control. Most transformations in policing are the result of five interrelated pressures: continued population growth; the shift from an agrarian to an industrial economy; increased complexity and inequity in the distribution of material resources; the crowding of people into cities; and advances in technology. Community policing reminds the importance of balancing efforts aimed at the top with those that focus on the street where most people live. It also reminds that people are the police departments most valuable resource and should be treated as valued partners in the police process. Community policing retains from the lessons of history a sincere commitment to improving police relations with minorities and a concerted effort to end police brutality. History also instructs that police are too prone to use technology and gimmicks to enlist support and the police themselves often undermine even well-meaning efforts. History proves that safety and order are not commodities the police can effectively impose on communities; instead, they are the hallmarks of communities that participate in social equity and self-governance to improve the quality of life for all people.