Victor L. Willson

Critical Measurement Issues in Learning Disabilities

For many years (Chalfant & Scheffelin, 1969), but particularly since the passage of Public Law 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975), the diagnosis and evaluation of learning disabilities has presented major problems. The central one has been the problem of arriving at a workable definition of learning disability (LD). Education and psychology, the primary fields concerned with learning disabilities are low consensus fields, dealing with human behavior and theoretical constructs (of which LD is one). Much controversy has always existed regarding just what constitutes a learning disability. The rules and regulations for implementation of PL 94-142 provide a definition for use by multidisciplinary teams in deciding upon a diagnosis of LD. This definition states that a determination of LD:

Research Techniques in AERJ Articles: 1969 to 1978

niques. Glass (Note 1), in an address to professors of educational research, discussed Kaplans (1964) distinction between scientific methods and techniques. Methods are cross-disciplinary principles such as replication, generalization, and causation, whereas techniques are discipline-specific procedures for the conduct of research. Glass classified techniques by their genesis among major disciplinesagronomy, cultural anthropology, biology, economics, psychology, and sociology. He discussed the three major techniques in use in educational research at that time: Fisherian experimental design, common factor analysis, and Neyman-Pearson decision theory, and he advocated greater interdisciplinary training in scientific methods and techniques. His recommendation was based on a number of premises that bear reiteration, his paper not being published.

A Meta-analysis of Pretest Sensitization Effects in Experimental Design

A meta-analysis of outcomes from 32 studies investigating pretest effects was conducted. All outcomes were computed as standardized differences between pretested and nonpretested groups. Eleven other variables were coded for each outcome. Initial descriptive statistics were indicative of differences between randomized and nonrandomized studies, so all further analyses were based on randomized group outcomes (n = 134). For all outcomes the average effect size was +.22, indicating the general elevating effect of pretest on posttest. Cognitive outcomes were raised .43, attitude outcomes .29, personality .48, and others about .00 standard deviations. Sixty-four percent of all effects were positive, and 81 percent of the cognitive effects were positive. Duration of time between pre- and posttesting was related to effect size, with effect size generally being small for durations less than a day or over 1 month. Year of publication, sample size, presence of experimental treatment, and sameness or difference of pretest and posttest were not significantly related to effect size. Researchers must continue to include pretest as a design variable when it is present, and to estimate its effect.

Effects of nonnormal data on parameter estimates and fit indices for a model with latent and manifest variables: An empirical study

Research in covariance structure analysis suggests that nonnormal data will invalidate chi‐square tests and produce erroneous standard errors. However, much remains unknown about the extent to and the conditions under which highly skewed and kurtotic data can affect the parameter estimates, standard errors, and fit indices. Using actual kurtotic and skewed data and varying sample sizes and estimation methods, we found that (a) normal theory maximum likelihood (ML) and generalized least squares estimators were fairly consistent and almost identical, (b) standard errors tended to underestimate the true variation of the estimators, but the problem was not very serious for large samples (n = 1,000) and conservative (99%) confidence intervals, and (c) the adjusted chi‐square tests seemed to yield acceptable results with appropriate sample sizes.

Quality of Research Design Moderates Effects of Grade Retention on Achievement: A Meta-Analytic, Multilevel Analysis

The present meta-analysis examines the effect of grade retention on academic outcomes and investigates systemic sources of variability in effect sizes. Using multilevel modeling (MLM), the authors investigate characteristics of 207 effect sizes across 22 studies published between 1990 and 2007 at two levels: the study (between) and individual (within) levels. Design quality is a study-level variable. Individual-level variables are median grade retained and median number of years postretention. Quality of design is associated with less negative effects. Years postretention is negatively associated with retention effects, and this effect is stronger for studies using grade comparisons versus age comparisons. The results challenge the widely held view that retention has a negative impact on achievement. Suggestions for future research are discussed.

Effects of a Theoretically Based Large-Scale Reading Intervention in a Multicultural Urban School District:

In 1997, Lindamood-Bell Learning Processes partnered with Pueblo School District 60 (PSD60), a heavily minority urban district with many Title I schools, to implement a theoretically based initiative designed to improve Colorado Student Assessment Program reading scores. In this study, the authors examined achievement in Grades 3–5 during the years 1998–2003. PSD60 schools and schools statewide were compared through a series of repeated measures analyses of covariance controlling for school size, percentage of minority students enrolled, socioeconomic status, and the amount of time a school was included in the intervention. Statistically significant and increasing gains favoring the Lindamood-Bell reading intervention were found both overall and in analyses of Title 1 schools.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Parenting and Children's Goals on Child Aggression.

This study tested a dual-mediation model of the relations among harsh parenting, hostile social information processing, and level of child aggression in a sample of 239 (150 male, 89 female) 2nd- to 4th-grade children. The theoretical model posited that harsh parenting has both direct and indirect effects on child level of aggression, with the indirect effects mediated through childrens social goals. The model further posited that the impact of social goals on aggression is mediated through other social cognitive processes (i.e., attributions of hostile intent, hostile solution generation, and positive outcome expectancies for aggression). We tested the dual-mediation model with structural equation modeling and found it to be a good fit to the data. Results were consistent with the view that parenting affects childrens goal orientation and that childrens goal orientation affects their behavior via online processing in social situations.

New perspectives on child and adolescent depression

Abstract The Childrens Depression Index (CDI) was administered to a group of 304 regular school students in Grades 3–12. It was found that 21% of the students reported mild to moderate levels and 7% reported severe levels of depression. Females reported more overall depression than did males. Specific CDI items selected more frequently by females than by males supports previous work suggesting that females tend to internalize difficulties whereas males are more likely to externalize problems. There were no age differences associated with overall depression; however, there were some developmental differences in specific items cited. Finally, “red flags” were identified that may be helpful in spotting children suffering from severe levels of depression.

Development of analogical reasoning in 4- and 5-year-old children

Abstract This study assessed the development of analogical reasoning of 4- and 5-year-olds. Subjects were 60 preschoolers, ages 48 months to 71 months. Performance of geometric analogy problems was measured at monthly intervals with the Test of Analogical Reasoning in Children. Results indicated that the children were generally stable in their reasoning performance. There was a significant linear upward trend in performance for less proficient, nontrained reasoners, but post hoc analysis indicated a significant difference only between the first testing and all other testings. Generally, less proficient reasoners used a naive, nonanalogical strategy in completing the geometric analogy problems. Explicit training of the less proficient reasoners had a significant, positive effect on performance that was maintained for several months. Finally, it was determined that the nontrained children who became more proficient in analogical reasoning were significantly older than those who did not.

Who Is Retained in First Grade? A Psychosocial Perspective

A sample of 784 children with below-median literacy performance in kindergarten or at the beginning of grade 1 was assessed in 5 areas of psychological and social variables: academic competence, sociodemographic characteristics, social/emotional/behavioral characteristics, school context, and home environment. We examined the contribution of academic competence to retention first and then evaluated contributions of each of the other areas beyond academic competence. The 165 students retained in first grade were found to differ from promoted students on reading and mathematics achievement test scores, teacher-rated engagement and achievement, and intelligence as individual predictors of academic competence, but with direct effects only for reading and teacher-rated achievement when entered as a set of predictors. Nine additional variables had zero-order significant correlations with retention status. Using hierarchical logistic regression, beyond the effects of academic competence variables we found that only being underage for grade and the home environmental variables of positive parental perceptions of their childs school, sense of shared responsibility for education with the school, and parent communication with the school contributed significantly to retention. Implications for educational policy and intervention are discussed.