Victoria A. Foster

Promoting Student Cognitive Development

This study focused on a theoretically grounded counselor preparation curriculum that was designed to enhance the moral reasoning and cognitive complexity of students as well as teach them the basic skills and theories of counselor education. The curriculum for the counselor training was rooted in a teaching–learning framework that included conditions for facilitating cognitive–developmental growth and skill and theoretical training components. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the developmental effects of the counselor training program as measured in 2 domains of cognitive development: conceptual level and level of moral reasoning. The participants were assessed at 3 different times: prior to entering the counseling program, 1-year into the program, and the month marking the completion of their 2nd year in the program. The Paragraph Completion Method (PCM) and the Defining Issues Test (DIT) were used as estimates of cognitive–developmental level. Analysis of the results revealed a significant gain for the group on the PCM between the 2nd and 3rd assessments and a positive but nonsignificant trend for the DIT.

Promoting the moral reasoning of undergraduate business students through a deliberate psychological education-based classroom intervention

Educating business students for ethical professional practice is a growing concern for both the corporate world and business education. Highly publicised scandals have pushed public trust in business to an all‐time low, resulting in losses of customers and high employee turnover. Corporate and business education leaders have begun to press for more effective models for promoting ethical development in business education. This study examined the effectiveness of one such model, Deliberate Psychological Education (DPE), in promoting greater cognitive moral reasoning in undergraduate business students. Its significant, positive findings hold promise for the promotion of more ethical business professionals through preparatory classroom intervention.

Promoting the Moral and Conceptual Development of Law Enforcement Trainees: A deliberate psychological educational approach

The history of ethical problems and corruption in American law enforcement is well documented. Current law enforcement training lacks a significant focus on ethics training and is in need of modifications which would include a greater emphasis on ethics education. This study drew on cognitive development theory, applied specifically to the domains of moral and conceptual development, to create and implement an educational programme for police officer trainees and college students studying criminal justice. The Deliberate Psychological Education model provided the framework for this educational program designed to promote development of moral reasoning and conceptual complexity among the participants. Significant gains were achieved for participants in the Deliberate Psychological Education intervention when compared with a control group in which the participants received the ethics training in a more traditional lecture format.

Supervising the child care counselor: A cognitive developmental model

A cognitive developmental model of counselor supervision was used to create a curriculum specific to the challenges facing supervisors in residential treatment settings for aggressive/assaultive youth. A significant body of research indicates that higher levels of cognitive development predict successful functioning in areas related to counseling and supervision, including greater empathic communication, more autonomy and interdependence, and more flexible counseling and teaching methods. Evaluations of the model were positive; supervisors reported feeling rejuvenated and more confident about providing supervision. The 14-week program model and curriculum are described, and implications for further application in the child care field are explored.

A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Client Violence in Residential Treatment

Residential counselors are occasionally expected to be in contact with clients at risk for violent behavior. Client violence poses the obvious risk of physical harm, and there is evidence to suggest that it may have a potentially harmful psychological impact as well. As a result of the potential variability within training programs in didactic and clinical instruction, residential counselors may be neither adequately informed about the nature of violent behavior nor prepared for the potential effects of client violence. The purpose of this article is threefold: (a) To call attention to the potential crisis of client violence for counselors, (b) to propose a conceptual framework for counselor preparation and practice regarding client violence, and (e) to make recommendations for further research.

A Preliminary Comparison Study of Online and Face-to-Face Counseling: Client Perceptions of Three Factors

This preliminary study examined the similarities and differences between online and face-to-face counseling with regard to general mental health, working alliance, and social presence. Participants included 50 current counseling clients (37 face-to-face, 13 online) who all were recruited through online mediums. Results indicated that online counseling clients perceived a significantly stronger working alliance on the total Working Alliance Inventory-Short Form as well as the Goal subscale than did those who received face-to-face only counseling. No significant differences existed between the groups on general mental health or social presence. These results suggest that a more controlled study with a larger sample might find that a strong working alliance can be developed through online counseling.

Developmental Characteristics of Home-Based Counselors: A Key to Serving At-Risk Families

Home-based counseling is an incredibly demanding intervention, yet little is known about the counselors providing this important service. This study sought to profile ego development, conceptual complexity, and supervision satisfaction for 120 home-based counselors. Counselors scored at moderate levels on measures of both ego development and conceptual level. Most counselors (74.2%) reported dissatisfaction with supervision because they are “undersupervised.” Implications for using a cognitive developmental framework for training and supervising home-based counselors are discussed.

Voices from "the front": how student violence is changing the experience of school leaders

ABSTRACT The nature of student violence in Americas schools has changed over the past two decades. Research suggests that there are two distinct kinds or “subtypes” of aggression in youth-reactive aggression and proactive aggression. Reactive aggression is characterized as a “hot-blooded,” automatic, defensive response to immediate and often misperceived threat. Proactive aggression, on the other hand, is described as highly organized, “cold-blooded,” and premeditated rather than automatic. According to responses from a national survey of school administrators, the frequency of proactive aggression has doubled among middle and high school students and nearly tripled at the elementary school level in the past 20 years. The purpose of this article is twofold: (a) to report findings of an inquiry into the impact of increasing proactive aggression in schools as experienced by principals and assistant principals nationwide, and (b) to present the views of “front line” school leaders with regard to the impact, causes and potential solutions to the problem.

Career Counseling for Reentry Dual Career Women: A Cognitive Developmental Approach

currently work outside the home in comparison to approximately 30% in 1960 (Outtz, 1993; Santrock, 1994). Furthermore, women are choosing to return to work or to school after being out of the labor force or educational system for some time. Their absence from work or higher education is generally due to child rearing and other family responsibilities. This phenomenon has generated a fairly recent trend in research concerning the reentry woman (Christian & Wilson, 1985; Derry & Gallant, 1993; DiNuzzo & Tolbert, 1981; Outtz, 1993; Padula, 1994; Santrock, 1994; Wheatley, 1991). Many reentry women seek career counseling as they attempt to plan for continued education, to regenerate an old career, or to seek guidance regarding a new career. For the purposes of this paper, working mothers, whether single or married and regardless of their type of occupation, will be defined as dual career women because of their work both in and outside the home. Such a definition acknowl-

Enhancing School Counselor Preparation for Work with LGBTQ Students: Developmental Strategies and Interventions

Hostile and unsafe learning environments persist for many lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) students. Professional school counselors are uniquely positioned to spearhead systemic initiatives to create safe and supportive schools that combat such oppression; however, current counselor education strategies may fail to adequately prepare school counseling trainees for this role. Cognitive developmental theory offers a pedagogical framework to assist counselor educators in conceptualizing school counseling trainees’ meaning-making positions and scaffolding matched interventions to enhance preparation toward LGBTQ affirmative counseling. A theoretical overview is provided, including the relationship of advanced cognitive development to school counselor competence, as well as samples of didactic, experiential, and reflection strategies counselor educators may employ to promote cognitive growth.