Vikram S. Dogra

Pearls and Pitfalls in Diagnosis of Ovarian Torsion

Ovarian torsion is defined as partial or complete rotation of the ovarian vascular pedicle and causes obstruction to venous outflow and arterial inflow. Ovarian torsion is usually associated with a cyst or tumor, which is typically benign; the most common is mature cystic teratoma. Ultrasonography (US) is the primary imaging modality for evaluation of ovarian torsion. US features of ovarian torsion include a unilateral enlarged ovary, uniform peripheral cystic structures, a coexistent mass within the affected ovary, free pelvic fluid, lack of arterial or venous flow, and a twisted vascular pedicle. The presence of flow at color Doppler imaging does not allow exclusion of torsion but instead suggests that the ovary may be viable, especially if flow is present centrally. Absence of flow in the twisted vascular pedicle may indicate that the ovary is not viable. The role of computed tomography (CT) has expanded, and it is increasingly used in evaluation of abdominal pain. Common CT features of ovarian torsion include an enlarged ovary, uterine deviation to the twisted side, smooth wall thickening of the twisted adnexal cystic mass, fallopian tube thickening, peripheral cystic structures, and ascites. Understanding the imaging appearance of ovarian torsion will lead to conservative, ovary-sparing treatment.

Relationship between Inflammatory Markers, Endothelial Activation Markers, and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness in HIV-Infected Patients Receiving Antiretroviral Therapy

BACKGROUND Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients are at increased risk of cardiovascular disease, which may be related to chronic inflammation and endothelial dysfunction despite virological control with antiretroviral therapy. The relationship between carotid intima-media thickness (IMT), a surrogate marker for cardiovascular disease, proinflammatory cytokines, and endothelial activation markers has not been fully explored in HIV-infected patients who are receiving antiretroviral therapy. METHODS We conducted a prospective, cross-sectional, observational study of treated HIV-infected patients and healthy control subjects to evaluate the relationship between carotid IMT, proinflammatory cytokines, endothelial activation biomarkers, and metabolic parameters in treated HIV-infected patients, compared with healthy control subjects. RESULTS We enrolled 73 HIV-infected patients and 21 control subjects. Common carotid artery and internal carotid artery IMT measurements, as well as tumor necrosis factor-alpha, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, myeloperoxidase, and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 levels were higher in the HIV-infected group. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein was the only biomarker that was positively correlated with carotid IMT in both groups. In the HIV-infected group, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 was positively correlated with all inflammatory cytokine levels. In multiple regression analysis, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, myeloperoxidase, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels were all associated with internal carotid artery IMT in the HIV-infected group, whereas age was associated with both common carotid artery and internal carotid artery IMT. CONCLUSIONS Enhanced endothelial activation, inflammation, and increased carotid IMT occur in HIV-infected patients despite antiretroviral therapy. Inflammatory markers are associated with endothelial activation, and both are associated with internal carotid artery IMT, supporting a potential role of inflammation in endothelial activation and cardiovascular disease in HIV infection.

Increased carotid intima media thickness and cardiac biomarkers in Hiv infected children

Objectives:To assess carotid intima media thickness (IMT) and cardiac biomarkers in HIV infected children on antiretroviral therapy (ART). Methods:This was a single site, cross sectional, controlled observational study. We assessed carotid IMT, homocysteine, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and myeloperoxidase levels in HIV infected children on stable ART for ≥ 6 months. Carotid IMT was reported as internal carotid artery (ICA) and common carotid artery (CCA) thickness; left and right sides were measured separately. Groups were compared using appropriate two-sample tests. Results:Of the 62 subjects enrolled, 31 were HIV positive (50%), 66% were female, and 69% were African–American. Median CD4% was 32% and 26 patients (84%) had HIV-1 RNA< 400 copies/ml. Sixteen patients had been taking protease inhibitors for a median duration of 27 months. None had hypertension or smoked. HIV infected children had higher HOMA-IR, waist-to-hip ratio, cholesterol, triglycerides, myeloperoxidase and lower homocysteine levels. Left and right CCA IMT, and left and right ICA IMT were significantly higher in the HIV infected group. Significant predictors of carotid IMT measurements in uninfected controls were body mass index and homocysteine, but only the duration of ARV therapy was predictive of IMT in the HIV infected group. Conclusion:Higher levels of carotid IMT and some cardiac markers were found in ART treated HIV infected children when compared to matched uninfected controls. These results suggest that HIV infected children receiving ART may be at increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Diagnostic clues to ectopic pregnancy.

Ectopic pregnancy accounts for approximately 2% of all pregnancies and is the most common cause of pregnancy-related mortality in the first trimester. Initial evaluation consists of hormonal assays and pelvic ultrasonography (US). A history of pelvic pain along with an abnormal beta human chorionic gonadotropin level should trigger an evaluation for an ectopic pregnancy. The fallopian tube is the most common location for an ectopic pregnancy. An adnexal mass that is separate from the ovary and the tubal ring sign are the most common findings of a tubal pregnancy. Other types of ectopic pregnancy include interstitial, cornual, ovarian, cervical, scar, intraabdominal, and heterotopic pregnancy. Interstitial pregnancy occurs when the gestational sac implants in the myometrial segment of the fallopian tube. Cornual pregnancy refers to the implantation of a blastocyst within the cornua of a bicornuate or septate uterus. An ovarian pregnancy occurs when an ovum is fertilized and is retained within the ovary. Cervical pregnancy results from an implantation within the endocervical canal. In a scar pregnancy, implantation takes place within the scar of a prior cesarean section. In an intraabdominal pregnancy, implantation occurs within the intraperitoneal cavity. Heterotopic pregnancy occurs when an intrauterine and an extrauterine pregnancy occur simultaneously. A spectrum of intra- and extrauterine findings may be seen on US images. Although many of the US findings are nonspecific by themselves, when several of them are seen, the specificity of US in depicting an ectopic pregnancy substantially improves.

Role of US in Testicular and Scrotal Trauma

High-frequency ultrasonography (US) with a linear-array transducer is the modality of choice for the initial evaluation of patients with acute scrotal pain after trauma. Testicular trauma is the third most common cause of acute scrotal pain. US is useful in the triage of patients for medical or surgical management because it reliably depicts tunica albuginea rupture, intra- and extratesticular hematomas, and testicular contusions. Color Doppler US allows direct evaluation of testicular perfusion and detection of uncommon conditions, such as testicular torsion, that may be associated with scrotal trauma. In addition, 10% of testicular tumors are found incidentally at US performed for the evaluation of trauma. If a conservative approach is adopted for the management of an intratesticular abnormality after trauma, follow-up US should be performed until the images show a complete resolution of the abnormality, so that a tumor will not be missed.

Imaging Features of Solitary Fibrous Tumors

OBJECTIVE The goal of this pictorial essay is to illustrate the multimodality imaging features of pleural and extrapleural solitary fibrous tumors. CONCLUSION Solitary fibrous tumors tend to be well-defined, ovoid, heterogeneously enhancing lesions. MRI characteristically depicts areas of low signal intensity that correspond to dense collagen. The findings of lesion multiplicity and hypermetabolism on PET images should raise the suspicion of malignancy.

Doppler evaluation of erectile dysfunction -Part 2

Doppler evaluation in erectile dysfunction (ED) has a significant role in determining the cause of ED. The advantages of penile Doppler and pharmacologic duplex ultrasonography include objective, minimally invasive evaluation of penile hemodynamics at a relatively low cost. Arteriogenic ED may be secondary to peripheral vascular disease and diabetes, or may be seen in association with coronary artery disease. Various parameters, such as diameter of the cavernosal artery, peak systolic flow velocity, degree of arterial dilatation and acceleration time, have been suggested for the diagnosis of arteriogenic ED, but peak systolic flow velocity is the most accurate indicator of arterial disease. This second part of the review article describes the various causes of ED and the interpretation and evaluation of color flow Doppler examination in ED.

Torsion and Beyond New Twists in Spectral Doppler Evaluation of the Scrotum

Objective. To illustrate how spectral Doppler waveform analysis plays an adjunctive but very definite role in scrotal sonography. Methods. The cases illustrate a variety of testicular disorders that were collected at a referral tertiary care center. Results. Normal and a variety of pathologic conditions of the testes are discussed, along with their signature spectral waveforms. Conclusions. Analysis of the spectral waveform provides important additional information in various scrotal disorders with acute pain. Spectral waveform analysis is critical to diagnosing incomplete torsion when color and power Doppler examinations are indeterminate.

Utility of CT Whirl Sign in Guiding Management of Small-Bowel Obstruction

OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between the CT whirl sign and outcome among patients with a clinical and radiologic diagnosis of small-bowel obstruction (SBO). MATERIALS AND METHODS The cases of 453 patients who underwent abdominal CT because of clinical suspicion of SBO were reviewed retrospectively. Patients with a radiologic diagnosis of SBO were included. Management with surgery or medical therapy was correlated with the presence of the whirl sign and other radiologic findings. Statistical calculations were performed to determine the value of the whirl sign in predicting the type of management needed for SBO. RESULTS According to CT criteria, 194 patients received a diagnosis of SBO and were included in the study. The whirl sign was identified on the CT scans of 40 of the 194 patients. Thirty-two of the 40 patients had SBO necessitating surgery, for a positive predictive value of 80%; 133 of 154 patients did not need surgery, for a negative predictive value of 86%. Fifty-three of 194 patients either underwent surgery or died of SBO during conservative therapy. The whirl sign was present on the CT scans of 32 of the 53 patients, for a sensitivity of 60%. One hundred thirty-three of 141 patients did not need surgery and did not have a whirl sign, for a specificity of 94%. The odds ratio for the whirl sign in predicting the presence of SBO necessitating surgery was 25.3 (95% CI, 10.3-62.3). CONCLUSION A patient with the whirl sign on CT is 25.3 times as likely as a patient without the sign to have SBO necessitating surgery. The results suggest an important role of the whirl sign in assessment of treatment options for patients with clinical and radiologic signs of SBO.

Testicular epidermoid cysts: sonographic features with histopathologic correlation.

Testicular epidermoid cysts are rare, accounting for 1% of all testicular tumors. We present the sonographic appearances of epidermoid cysts in 3 cases, together with the histopathologic correlation. In case 1, sonography showed an intratesticular hypoechoic mass with a well‐defined echogenic rim; the mass measured 1.8 × 1.5 × 1.5 cm, and there was no evidence of calcification. In case 2, sonography showed a well‐circumscribed mass measuring 1.3 × 1.3 × 1.0 cm, with alternating hypoechoic and hyperechoic rings (onion‐ring appearance) and no calcifications. In case 3, sonography showed a 2.4‐ × 2.3‐ × 2.3‐cm, well‐circumscribed, oval mass with a heterogeneous echotexture and an outer hypoechoic halo. The mass contained plaque‐like regions of increased echogenicity, with peripheral acoustic shadowing from refraction artifact. Hypoechoic clefts were visualized posterior to the plaque‐like areas. The triad of findings—sonographic appearance of an onion ring, avascularity on Doppler sonography, and negative results of tumor marker studies—is highly suggestive of an epidermoid cyst.