Viktor Sarris

Max Wertheimer on seen motion: Theory and evidence

SummaryMax Wertheimer, the chief founder of an experimentally based Gestalt psychology, conducted his pioneering studies in motion perception on new theoretical grounds. Since the influence of this approach may be greater in todays cognitive psychology than it has ever been during the half-century of introspectionism and radical behaviorism, it is appropriate to review the actual roots of Wertheimers (1912) seminal publication and his continuing research on apparent and real motion perception in the light of past and recent work. Illustrative examples, especially of Wertheimers early research, are provided in this paper. The implications of his experimentation and biopsychological theorizing are still of major interest for present psychological inquiry. Nevertheless, the need for more future systematic comparative research on motion perception must be emphasized. The Epilogue of this paper examines why important parts of Wertheimers experimental contributions to psychology may have been underrated or neglected by many contemporary psychologists.

Filling-in with colour: Different modes of surface completion

We investigated the figural dynamics of filling-in processes in figures with more than one possible figure-ground organisation. Using a central disk and two concentric rings as well as similar stimuli consisting of three nested squares or parallel stripes, we tested for filling-in with different equiluminant colour combinations. We observed four modes of filling-in: First, in most of the cases, the inner ring assumed the colour of the central disk and outer ring (M1). Second, the central disk became filled-in with the colour of the inner ring, without any colour change on the outer ring (M2). Third, in a first step, the colour of the inner ring spread onto the central disk; then, in a second step, the colour of the outer ring spread over the whole stimulus (M3). This two step filling-in process has not been reported so far. Fourth, a mode (M4) was sometimes observed that was characterised by the central disk and outer ring assuming the colour of the inner ring. Thus, colour filling-in or colour spreading proceeded both in a centripetal (periphery to fovea) as well as a centrifugal direction. The colours red and yellow proved to be stronger inducers than blue and green. Conversely, the latter colours became filled-in more easily than the former. The filled-in colour was always that of the inducing stimulus, i.e., there was no colour mixture. This suggests a long-range, neural process underlying filling-in under these conditions.

Multiple anchoring of category rating scales

A psychophysical experiment compared the effects of two different kinds of anchoring upon category ratings of the sizes of squares: (1) single anchoring in which the same square was presented on every anchoring trial, and (2) multiple anchoring in which squares of different sizes were presented on anchoring trials. Subjects did not rate the anchors, only those squares presented on alternate trials as the series stimuli. The major finding was that the two kinds of anchoring have similar effects. As with the single anchor, the multiple anchor establishes a new endpoint for the scale of judgment. The previously demonstrated relationship of increasing and then decreasing contrast as a function of the remoteness of the single anchor (Sarris, 1967, 1976) was found also for multiple anchoring.

An experimental test of two mathematical models applied to the size-weight illusion.

Two quantitative models, which make different quantitative predictions for the amount of the size-weight illusion, were tested according to the psychophysical methods employed by the respective authors (magnitude estimation versus category ratings). Both models with their corresponding method were supported. This causes uncertainty over Andersons chaim that the validity of both a model and the applied scale used is sufficiently test by the socalled joint testing procedure.

Illusional effects of spatial distance between focal and contextual parts of a modified Müller-Lyer figure.

Visual integration of spatially separated stimuli was studied in a modified Müller-Lyer illusional pattern by varying the distance between the shaft and the contextual lines. Using the method of constant stimuli, the data from 265 participants indicated a significant inverted-U trend which is contrary to previously reported findings.

Virginia Woolf – engagierte Schriftstellerin der Erlebniswelt

Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) – eine grose Schriftstellerin des Erlebens (Empathie) und prominente Vertreterin der Frauenemanzipation im England der ersten Halfte des 20. Jahrhunderts – hat einen Grosteil ihres Lebens unter der bipolaren Krankheit gelitten. Vielen Lesern von Woolfs Werken ist unbekannt geblieben, dass Woolf.

Die Mad Genius -Hypothese: methodischer Anspruch und Wirklichkeit

Entgegen der Einsicht in die mogliche psychische Gefahrdungslage von genialen Menschen werden Kreativitat und Genialitat in der Humanistischen Psychologie von Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers oder Rollo May als ein Zeichen psychischer Gesundheit aufgefasst im Sinne der Selbstverwirklichung. Dieser Gedanke findet sich oft auch bei den Vertretern der heutigen sogenannten Positiven Psychologie. Abgesehen von der enormen Vagheit dieser Auffassung gibt es viele ungeklarte Fragen hinsichtlich einer Entratselung der Kreativitat und Genialitat bei psychisch gesunden und nicht-gesunden Menschen.

Robert Schumann – passionierter Vorreiter der romantischen Komposition

Die Musik von Robert Schumann (1810–1856) – bereits in seiner Jugend fing er an zu komponieren – sollte unsterblich werden. Schumann wurde schon zu Lebzeiten ein sehr erfolgreicher Komponist; und doch starb er unglucklich und krank in der Psychiatrie. In seinem Tagebuch findet sich schon fruh der psychologisch wichtige Eintrag, dass „… ich mich oft sehr wohl befinde, aber noch viel ofter zum Erschiesen melancholisch“ (Dezember 1838; s. Payk 2006).

Vincent van Gogh – heroischer Wegbereiter der expressionistischen Malerei

Die Gemalde von Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) sollten, lange nach seinem Tod, den Ubergang vom Impressionismus zum Expressionismus bedeuten und ihn erst dann als deren Schopfer weltberuhmt machen. Van Gogh, vereinsamt und psychisch krank, endete suizidal. Waren es seine langen Krankheitsepisoden, die dafur verantwortlich zu machen sind, oder die fehlende Anerkennung bereits wahrend seines gesamten Kunstlerlebens?

Genie und Wahnsinn in der Musik, Malerei und Literatur

Die Alltagsbedeutung von „Genie“ basiert oft auf falschen Vorstellungen, beispielsweise auf einem Doppelmythos fur das Zustandekommen von genialen Einfallen. Der Mythos der sogenannten „Inspiration“ beinhaltet, dass geniale Einfalle auf gottliche oder andere hohere Eingebungen zuruckgehen – das aber steht auserhalb des wissenschaftlichen Denkens. Der Mythos eines „angeborenen“ Talents basiert auf der Annahme, dass Genialitat bei einigen Menschen schon von Kindesbeinen an gegeben sei; allerdings steht dies in einem eklatanten Widerspruch zu der empirischen Evidenz der letzten Jahrzehnte.