Vinod Gopalan

miR-126 in human cancers: clinical roles and current perspectives.

miR-126 has been implicated in the processes of inflammation and angiogenesis. Through these processes, miR-126 is implicated in cancer biology, but its role there has not been well reviewed. The aim of this review is to examine the molecular mechanisms and clinicopathological significance of miR-126 in human cancers. miR-126 was shown to have roles in cancers of the gastrointestinal tract, genital tracts, breast, thyroid, lung and some other cancers. Its expression was suppressed in most of the cancers studied. The molecular mechanisms that are known to cause aberrant expression of miR-126 include alterations in gene sequence, epigenetic modification and alteration of dicer abundance. miR-126 can inhibit progression of some cancers via negative control of proliferation, migration, invasion, and cell survival. In some instances, however, miR-126 supports cancer progression via promotion of blood vessel formation. Downregulation of miR-126 induces cancer cell proliferation, migration, and invasion via targeting specific oncogenes. Also, reduced levels of miR-126 are a significant predictor of poor survival of patients in many cancers. In addition, miR-126 can alter a multitude of cellular mechanisms in cancer pathogenesis via suppressing gene translation of numerous validated targets such as PI3K, KRAS, EGFL7, CRK, ADAM9, HOXA9, IRS-1, SOX-2, SLC7A5 and VEGF. To conclude, miR-126 is commonly down-regulated in cancer, most likely due to its ability to inhibit cancer cell growth, adhesion, migration, and invasion through suppressing a range of important gene targets. Understanding these mechanisms by which miR-126 is involved with cancer pathogenesis will be useful in the development of therapeutic targets for the management of patients with cancer.

Carcinoma ex Pleomorphic Adenoma: A Comprehensive Review of Clinical, Pathological and Molecular Data

Carcinoma ex pleomorphic adenoma (Ca ex PA) is a carcinoma arising from a primary or recurrent benign pleomorphic adenoma. It often poses a diagnostic challenge to clinicians and pathologists. This study intends to review the literature and highlight the current clinical and molecular perspectives about this entity. The most common clinical presentation of CA ex PA is of a firm mass in the parotid gland. The proportion of adenoma and carcinoma components determines the macroscopic features of this neoplasm. The entity is difficult to diagnose pre-operatively. Pathologic assessment is the gold standard for making the diagnosis. Treatment for Ca ex PA often involves an ablative surgical procedure which may be followed by radiotherapy. Overall, patients with Ca ex PA have a poor prognosis. Accurate diagnosis and aggressive surgical management of patients presenting with Ca ex PA can increase their survival rates. Molecular studies have revealed that the development of Ca ex PA follows a multi-step model of carcinogenesis, with the progressive loss of heterozygosity at chromosomal arms 8q, then 12q and finally 17p. There are specific candidate genes in these regions that are associated with particular stages in the progression of Ca ex PA. In addition, many genes which regulate tumour suppression, cell cycle control, growth factors and cell–cell adhesion play a role in the development and progression of Ca ex PA. It is hopeful that these molecular data can give clues for the diagnosis and management of the disease.

Translational potential of cancer stem cells: A review of the detection of cancer stem cells and their roles in cancer recurrence and cancer treatment.

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a subpopulation of cancer cells with many clinical implications in most cancer types. One important clinical implication of CSCs is their role in cancer metastases, as reflected by their ability to initiate and drive micro and macro-metastases. The other important contributing factor for CSCs in cancer management is their function in causing treatment resistance and recurrence in cancer via their activation of different signalling pathways such as Notch, Wnt/β-catenin, TGF-β, Hedgehog, PI3K/Akt/mTOR and JAK/STAT pathways. Thus, many different therapeutic approaches are being tested for prevention and treatment of cancer recurrence. These may include treatment strategies targeting altered genetic signalling pathways by blocking specific cell surface molecules, altering the cancer microenvironments that nurture cancer stem cells, inducing differentiation of CSCs, immunotherapy based on CSCs associated antigens, exploiting metabolites to kill CSCs, and designing small interfering RNA/DNA molecules that especially target CSCs. Because of the huge potential of these approaches to improve cancer management, it is important to identify and isolate cancer stem cells for precise study and application of prior the research on their role in cancer. Commonly used methodologies for detection and isolation of CSCs include functional, image-based, molecular, cytological sorting and filtration approaches, the use of different surface markers and xenotransplantation. Overall, given their significance in cancer biology, refining the isolation and targeting of CSCs will play an important role in future management of cancer.

Cancer stem cell: Fundamental experimental pathological concepts and updates

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a subset of cancer cells which play a key role in predicting the biological aggressiveness of cancer due to its ability of self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation (stemness). The CSC model is a dynamic one with a functional subpopulation of cancer cells rather than a stable cell population responsible for tumour regeneration. Hypotheses regarding the origins of CSCs include (1) malignant transformation of normal stem cells; (2) mature cancer cell de-differentiation with epithelial-mesenchymal transition and (3) induced pluripotent cancer cells. Surprisingly, the cancer stem cell hypothesis originated in the late nineteenth century and the existence of haematopoietic stem cells was demonstrated a century later, demonstrating that the concept was possible. In the last decade, CSCs have been identified and isolated in different cancers. The hallmark traits of CSCs include their heterogeneity, interaction with microenvironments and plasticity. Understanding these basic concepts of CSCs is important for translational applications using CSCs in the management of patients with cancer.

Horizontal transfer of whole mitochondria restores tumorigenic potential in mitochondrial DNA-deficient cancer cells

Recently, we showed that generation of tumours in syngeneic mice by cells devoid of mitochondrial (mt) DNA (ρ0 cells) is linked to the acquisition of the host mtDNA. However, the mechanism of mtDNA movement between cells remains unresolved. To determine whether the transfer of mtDNA involves whole mitochondria, we injected B16ρ0 mouse melanoma cells into syngeneic C57BL/6Nsu9-DsRed2 mice that express red fluorescent protein in their mitochondria. We document that mtDNA is acquired by transfer of whole mitochondria from the host animal, leading to normalisation of mitochondrial respiration. Additionally, knockdown of key mitochondrial complex I (NDUFV1) and complex II (SDHC) subunits by shRNA in B16ρ0 cells abolished or significantly retarded their ability to form tumours. Collectively, these results show that intact mitochondria with their mtDNA payload are transferred in the developing tumour, and provide functional evidence for an essential role of oxidative phosphorylation in cancer. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.22187.001

Regulation of microRNA-1288 in colorectal cancer: altered expression and its clinicopathological significance

We aim to examine the miR‐1288 expression in cancer cell lines and a large cohort of patients with colorectal cancer. Two colon cancer cell lines (SW480 and SW48) and one normal colonic epithelial cell line (FHC) were recruited. The miRNA expressions of miR‐1288 were tested on these cell lines by using quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction (qRT‐PCR). An exogenous miR‐1288 (mimic) was used to detect cell proliferation and cell cycle changes in SW480 using MTT calorimetric assay and flow cytometry, respectively. In addition, tissues from 122 patients with surgical resection of colorectum (82 adenocarcinomas, 20 adenomas, and 20 non‐neoplastic tissues) were tested for miR‐1288 expression by qRT‐PCR. The colon cancer cell lines showed reduced expression of miR‐1288 compared to normal colonic epithelial cell line. Over expression of miR‐1288 in SW480 cell line showed increased cell proliferation and increased G2–M phase cells. In tissues, reduced miR‐1288 expression was noted in majority of colorectal adenocarcinoma compared to colorectal adenoma and non‐neoplastic tissues. Reduced or absent expression of miR‐1288 was noted in 76% (n = 62/82) of the cancers. The expression levels of miR‐1288 were higher in distal colorectal adenocarcinomas (P = 0.013) and in cancers of lower T staging (P = 0.033). To conclude, alternation of miR‐1288 expression is important in the progression of colorectal cancer. The differential regulation of miR‐1288 was found to be related to cancer location and pathological staging in colorectal cancers.

Signet-ring cell carcinoma of colorectum—current perspectives and molecular biology

PurposeColorectal signet-ring cell carcinoma (SRCC) is rare, and very little detailed information on the molecular biology of the disease is available.MethodsThe literature on the clinical, pathological and, in particular, the molecular biology of this rare entity was critically reviewed. The reviewed articles take into account a total of 1,817 cases of SRCC, but only 143 cases have molecular data available. The characteristics of two patients with colorectal SRCC were also discussed.ResultsColorectal SRCC mostly occurs in younger patients, is larger and has different site predilection compared with conventional colorectal adenocarcinoma. It can occur as one of the synchronous cancers in the colorectum. The cancer is usually diagnosed at advanced stages because of the late manifestation of symptoms, and aggressive treatment strategy is required. Limited reports in the literature have shown that the variant of colorectal cancer demonstrated a different pattern of genetic alterations of common growth kinase-related oncogenes (K-ras, BRAF), tumour suppressor genes (p53, p16), gene methylation and cell adhesion-related genes related to the Wingless signalling pathway (E-cadherin and beta-catenin) from conventional colorectal adenocarcinoma. Colorectal SRCC also showed high expression of mucin-related genes and genes related to the gastrointestinal system. There was also a higher prevalence of microsatellite instability-high tumours and low Cox-2 expression in colorectal SRCC as opposed to conventional adenocarcinoma.ConclusionsColorectal SRCC has unique molecular pathological features. The unique molecular profiles in SRCC may provide molecular-based improvements to patient management in colorectal SRCC.

Clinicopathological significance of synchronous carcinoma in colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND Synchronous colorectal carcinoma has seldom been studied in large series. The study was designed to examine the significance of colorectal synchronous carcinoma in a large cohort of patients. METHODS The clinicopathological features of 102 patients with synchronous colorectal carcinoma were compared with 1,793 patients with solitary colorectal carcinoma. RESULTS The prevalence of synchronous colorectal carcinoma was 3.6%. In these patients, 4% had FAP, 6% had hyperplastic polyposis, and 2% had ulcerative colitis. The index carcinoma was more likely to have higher histological grade and T stage than other carcinoma(s) in the same patient. When compared with solitary colorectal carcinoma, synchronous colorectal carcinoma was more often noted in males with coexisting FAP and in proximal location. The 5-year survival rate of patients with synchronous colorectal carcinoma was 53% and was similar to those with solitary colorectal carcinoma. CONCLUSIONS We examined the clinicopathological features of patients with synchronous colorectal carcinomas in a large cohort of patients. Attention to these features was important for better management of this group of cancer.

Co-regulatory potential of vascular endothelial growth factor–A and vascular endothelial growth factor–C in thyroid carcinoma

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) promotes growth of blood or lymphatic vessels. The aim of the current study is to identify relationships between VEGF-A and VEGF-C, and their impact in angiogenesis and metastases in thyroid cancers. VEGF-A and VEGF-C mRNA and protein expression was investigated in 136 thyroid cancers (123 papillary thyroid carcinomas and 13 undifferentiated thyroid carcinomas) and 40 matched lymph node metastases with papillary thyroid carcinoma using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. VEGF-A and VEGF-C mRNA expression was significantly different between conventional papillary thyroid carcinoma, follicular variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma, and undifferentiated thyroid carcinomas (P = 1 × 10(-6) and 1 × 10(-5), respectively). In undifferentiated carcinoma, VEGF-A and VEGF-C protein overexpression was noted in all cases. VEGF-A and VEGF-C mRNA overexpression was noted in 51% (n = 62) and 27% (n = 33) of the papillary thyroid carcinomas, whereas VEGF-A and VEGF-C protein overexpression was also identified in 70% (n = 86) and 62% (n = 76) of the carcinomas. VEGF-A mRNA was significantly higher in cancers with lymph node metastases compared with nonmetastatic cancers (P = .001), whereas most metastatic cancers underexpressed VEGF-C (P = .0002), with a similar trend for protein. The expression of VEGF-A and VEGF-C correlated with each other at both mRNA and protein levels (P = .00004 and .003, respectively). In summary, VEGF-A and -C expressions correlate with the pathological parameters and metastatic status of thyroid carcinomas. The significant correlations between the expressions of these genes add weight to hypotheses concerning VEGF-A and -C interaction in cancer progression.

Diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma—an update of its clinicopathological features and molecular biology

Diffuse sclerosing variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma (DSVPTC) is an uncommon variant of papillary thyroid carcinoma. The aim of this review is to critically analyse the features of this entity. A search of the literature revealed 25 clinicopathological studies with in-depth analysis of features of DSVPTC. Overall, the prevalence of DSVPTC varies from 0.7-6.6% of all papillary thyroid carcinoma. Higher prevalence of DSVPTC was noted in paediatric patients and in patients affected by irradiation. DSVPTC tends to occur more frequently in women and in patients in the third decade of life. Macroscopically, DSVPTC can involve the thyroid gland extensively without forming a dominant mass. Microscopic examination of DSVPTC revealed extensive fibrosis, squamous metaplasia and numerous psammoma bodies. The latter pathological feature can aid in the pre-operative diagnosis of the entity by fine needle aspiration and ultrasound. Compared to conventional papillary thyroid carcinoma, DSVPTC had a higher incidence of lymph node metastases at presentation. Distant metastases were noted in approximately 5% of the cases. Patients with DSVPTC were recommended to be managed by aggressive treatment protocols. It is likely that as a result of this, the prognosis of the patients with DSVPTC was noted to be similar to conventional papillary thyroid carcinoma. Overall, cancer recurrence and cancer related mortality have been reported in 14% and 3%, respectively, of patients with DSVPTC. In immunohistochemical studies, DSVPTC showed different expression patterns of epithelial membrane antigen, galectin 3, cell adhesion molecules, p53 and p63 when compared to conventional papillary thyroid carcinoma. On genetic analysis, the occurrence of BRAF and RAS mutations are uncommon events in DSVPTC and activation of RET/PTC rearrangements are common. To conclude, DSVPTC has different clinical, pathological and molecular profiles when compared to conventional papillary thyroid carcinoma.