Vishal K. Gupta

The Role of Gender Stereotypes in Perceptions of Entrepreneurs and Intentions to Become an Entrepreneur

In this study we examine the role of socially constructed gender stereotypes in entrepreneurship and their influence on men and womens entrepreneurial intentions. Data on characteristics of males, females, and entrepreneurs were collected from young adults in three countries. As hypothesized, entrepreneurs were perceived to have predominantly masculine characteristics. Additional results revealed that although both men and women perceive entrepreneurs to have characteristics similar to those of males (masculine gender–role stereotype), only women also perceived entrepreneurs and females as having similar characteristics (feminine gender–role stereotype). Further, though men and women did not differ in their entrepreneurial intentions, those who perceived themselves as more similar to males (high on male gender identification) had higher entrepreneurial intentions than those who saw themselves as less similar to males (low male gender identification). No such difference was found for people who saw themselves as more or less similar to females (female gender identification). The results were consistent across the three countries. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Empirical research on entrepreneurial orientation: An assessment and suggestions for future research

Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) is one of the most widely accepted firm-level constructs in the literature. The present study provides a comprehensive qualitative review and evaluation of the empirical EO literature. It finds that EO research has made considerable strides in recent years and is accelerating and broadening, although notable biases and inconsistencies in variable choice and model specification remain. The article sheds light on the popularity of Miller’s unidimensional conceptualization of EO, as well as the rise in multidimensional explorations of the phenomenon. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of the study’s findings for EO-related research and practice.

The Effect of Gender Stereotype Activation on Entrepreneurial Intentions

In this study, the impact of implicit and explicit activation of gender stereotypes on mens and womens intentions to pursue a traditionally masculine career, such as entrepreneurship, was examined. On the basis of stereotype activation theory, it was hypothesized that men and women would confirm the gender stereotype about entrepreneurship when it was presented implicitly but disconfirm it when it was presented explicitly. Hypotheses were tested by randomly assigning 469 business students to one of 6 experimental conditions and then measuring their entrepreneurial intentions. Results supported the hypothesis when entrepreneurship was associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics but not when it was associated with traditionally feminine characteristics. Men also had higher entrepreneurial intention scores compared with women when no stereotypical information about entrepreneurship was presented, suggesting that underlying societal stereotypes associating entrepreneurship with masculine characteristics may influence peoples intentions. However, men and women reported similar intentions when entrepreneurship was presented as gender neutral, suggesting that widely held gender stereotypes can be nullified. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Entrepreneurial Orientation, Firm Performance, and the Moderating Role of Transformational Leadership Behaviors:

Extant research has shown that entrepreneurial orientation (EO) is positively associated with firm performance, but several contingencies affect the strength of this relationship. This article uses insights from the resource-based view and upper echelons perspective to introduce top management’s transformational leadership behaviors as moderators in the EO–performance relationship. The theoretically derived model is tested using survey data obtained from 790 small-and medium-sized firms in six countries. Findings indicate that, regardless of national setting, four transformational behaviors—articulating a vision, providing an appropriate model, having high performance expectations, and showing supportive leader behavior—positively affect the relationship between EO and firm performance. Further, the performance consequences of EO are greater when top management adheres to a configuration characterized by the highest possible levels of transformational behaviors. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

What the numbers tell: The impact of human, family and financial capital on women and men's entry into entrepreneurship in Turkey

Entrepreneurship contributes to economic development in countries worldwide. Entrepreneurial activity is beneficial for both men and women, including those in developing countries. However, men and women may not engage in entrepreneurship to the same extent because of differential access to (various forms of) capital. This study examines the relative importance of three types of capital – human, family and financial – in pursuing entrepreneurship. Using data collected in Turkey, we find that regardless of sex, all three forms of capital influence the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur in varying degrees. Contrary to expectations, the impact of human capital on the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur is higher for women than men. Data also revealed that family capital facilitates womens entry into entrepreneurship only when family size is very large (i.e. seven or more). No gender differences are observed in the impact of financial capital on the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur. Findings suggest that to encourage entrepreneurship in Turkey, policy-makers should emphasize access to human and financial capital. Furthermore, findings suggest that womens likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur will be especially encouraged if they have increased access to education, as well as the skills necessary to take advantage of their family capital.

Cross-Cultural Similarities and Differences in Characteristics Attributed to Entrepreneurs: A Three-Nation Study

This study examines characteristics attributed to entrepreneurs in three countries and identifies similarities and differences in entrepreneurial characteristics across countries. Business students (N = 424) from India, Turkey, and the United States rated 92 descriptors of human attributes and behaviors. For each attribute, respondents rated how characteristic it was of an entrepreneur. We found that though some characteristics were attributed to entrepreneurs across national cultures, there were also important differences in characteristics attributed to entrepreneurs in the three cultures. Following from prior literature, we did not assume the North American perspective of the entrepreneur as universal, allowing us to better understand how people in different cultures view entrepreneurs. The identification of country-specific entrepreneurship concepts can be useful for researchers interested in studying entrepreneurship internationally and practitioners interested in encouraging and training entrepreneurs in different countries. Implications of our findings and directions for future research are discussed.

A Longitudinal Examination of the Relationship Between Team Leadership and Performance

The use of teams is ubiquitous and appears to be increasing in contemporary organizations. Teams allow individuals to work together and integrate their diverse knowledge and skills to deal with strategic and operational challenges confronting their organizations. In present study, the authors seek to advance scholarly knowledge on team leadership. They adopt a dynamic approach by collecting longitudinal data from teams competing in a simulated athletic footwear industry. In doing so, they examine the impact of team leadership on performance, as well as the impact of performance on subsequent team leadership, and they examine the mediating role of cohesion and conflict in the relationship between team leadership and performance. They use partial least squares to analyze the data. Finally, they discuss research and practical implications and highlight future research directions.

The Philosophical Foundations of a Radical Austrian Approach to Entrepreneurship

The equilibrium-based approaches that dominate entrepreneurship research offer useful insights into some aspects of entrepreneurship, but they ignore or downplay many fundamental entrepreneurial phenomena such as individuals’ creative imaginations, firms’ resource (re)combinations, and markets’ disequilibrating tendencies—and the genuine uncertainty and widespread heterogeneity these imply. To overcome these limitations, scholars have recently introduced a nonequilibrium approach to entrepreneurship based on Ludwig Lachmann’s “radical subjectivist” brand of Austrian economics. Here, this radical Austrian approach is extended beyond Lachmann to include the work of radical subjectivism’s other noted theorist: George Shackle. More important, the article extends entrepreneurship research by systematically comparing and contrasting the nascent, radical Austrian approach to entrepreneurship with three dominant equilibrium-based approaches: neoclassical, Kirznerian, and Schumpeterian economics. Specifically, the article (a) explicates the paradigmatic philosophical assumptions about the nature of individuals, firms, and markets that underlie these approaches; (b) demonstrates how metaphor is employed as a device to concretize these assumptions; (c) examines the research questions that arise from the assumptions these metaphors reflect; and (d) uses the Japanese “beer wars” of the 1980s and 1990s to illustrate one methodological approach (hermeneutics) researchers can adopt to apply these assumptions, metaphors, and questions to study entrepreneurial phenomena from a radical subjectivist perspective.

Differences between Men and Women in Opportunity Evaluation as a Function of Gender Stereotypes and Stereotype Activation

Opportunity evaluation represents a core aspect of the entrepreneurial process. Prior research suggests that evaluation of new opportunities is influenced by biases rooted in subjective beliefs, values, and assumptions. In the present study, we used stereotype activation theory to propose that respondent gender (men–women), content of stereotype (masculine–feminine), and the manner in which stereotype information is presented (subtle–blatant) interact to influence evaluations of a new business opportunity. We found that both masculine and feminine stereotype activation influenced men and womens evaluation of a business opportunity differently depending upon whether the stereotype was blatantly or subtly activated. Our results indicate that gender stereotype activation can both boost and impede men and womens subsequent actions on entrepreneurial tasks such as opportunity evaluation, depending on the content of the stereotype and the manner in which it is presented. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

On Lachmannian and Effectual Entrepreneurship: A Rejoinder to Sarasvathy and Dew (2008)

We welcome the comments of Professors Sarasvathy and Dew (2008) on our recent article, which introduced a new paradigm for entrepreneurship research based on one of the central figures in modern Austrian economics: Ludwig Lachmann (Chiles et al. 2007). Our purpose in writing the article was (1) to bring together a wide range of disparate entrepreneurship concepts under a single new conceptual framework, and (2) to provide greater coherence and theoretical underpinnings to entrepreneurship research. In doing so, we described connections between a Lachmannian approach to entrepreneurship and numerous extant approaches, including effectuation. Sarasvathy and Dew (hereafter, S&D), in taking issue with some of our interpretations of effectuation, clarified their previous work on this approach and explicated its primary foundations. We find S&D’s discussion of the problems of knowledge, resources, and institutions provocative, and their conclusion about the basis of effectuation revealing. Our response to these arguments attempts to further clarify areas of possible confusion and suggests that the Lachmannian and effectuation approaches may share more common ground than S&D realize in some areas and less than we thought in others. In our brief response, we do not attempt to critique every point S&D make, but instead focus on what we view as their fundamental arguments.