Vitaly Dubrovsky

The effects of a “distinct window” screen design on computer-mediated group decision making

An experiment was performed to test a “distinct-window” conferencing screen design as an electronic cue of social status differences in computer-mediated group decision-making. The screen design included one “distinct” window to symbolize high-status, and two “nondistinct” windows to symbolize low-status. The results indicated that the distinct-window screen design did produce status affects in groups of peers making decisions on judgmental problems. Randomly assigned occupants of the distinct window had greater influence on group decisions and members attitudes than occupants of nondistinct windows.

Real-Time Computer-Mediated Conferencing versus Electronic Mail

Electronic mail-like systems are becoming a popular way of conferencing in organizations, while real-time computer conferencing (RTCC) facilities are virtually ignored. It is the suggestion of this paper that in a computerized organizational environment for group decisions made through consensus development, RTCC may have some advantages over electronic mail-like conferencing. The experimental study comparing RTCC and electronic mail as modes of computer-mediated communication during group decision making is described. The post-experimental preferences-difficulties questionnaire revealed that: (1) a majority of the participants clearly preferred face-to-face communication to computer-mediated (76% vs. 22%) and RTCC to electronic mail (93% vs. 7%); (2) since 79% of the participants were willing to give up their own opinion and simply agree in order to get away from the discussion, because communication via computer is frustrating, it is possible that the quality of the decisions may suffer due to the deficiences of the computer media; (3) The participants encountered significant cognitive difficulties in both modes of computer conferencing. These difficulties are addressed in the design recommendations for both RTCC and electronic mail.

“Recommended” versus “Preferred” in Design and Use of Computer Workstations:

Due to the recent development of adjustable office furniture and elements of computer hardware, a new “preferred settings” approach to VDT workstation (VDTW) design has emerged in opposition to the traditional recommended standards. This approach studies the “recommended - preferred” controversy on the population level in terms of means, ranges, and percentiles and sets new dimensions and ranges of adjustment for the design of the VDTW components. While the VDTWs components are designed in a view of population, they are used by individuals. This paper raises the issue of studying the “recommended - preferred” controversy on the individual level in relation to the task of customizing VDTWs for individual users. Preferred individual adjustments of the experimental VDTW made by 23 subjects were compared to the respective, recommended individual adjustments. Although all recommended-preferred differences were statistically significant, almost all preferred values were either very close to the corresponding recommended values or deviated from the recommended optima without exceeding the recommended ranges. The paper discusses implications of this result for the customizing of the VDTWs for individual users.

EXPECTED AND UNEXPECTED EFFECTS OF COMPUTER MEDIA ON GROUP DECISION MAKING

During the past several years, a number of investigators have hypothesized that electronic mail and other computer-mediated communication technologies greatly attenuate social context cues (Hiltz and Turoff, 1978; Short, Williams, and Christie, 1976; Kiesler, Siegel, and McGuire, 1984). Equalization across status categories has been observed in studies of electronic communication in organizations (Sproull and Kiesler, 1986; Eveland and Bikson, 1988). The equalization phenomenon has been demonstrated in experiments showing that the distribution of discussion remarks was more equal when groups of peer members made decisions electronically than the same groups made decisions face-to-face (Siegel et al., 1986, McGuire et al., 1987; Weisband, 1989). However, no experimental test was made to examine the effect of electronic communication on preexisting differences in social status. The purpose of this study was to experimentally examine status equalization in computer-mediated group decision making.

Effects of Status on Group Decision Making: Ad Hoc versus Real Groups

This study compares effects of status on group decision making in ad hoc student and real supervisor-subordinates groups. Eighteen ad hoc and eighteen real groups of three with one high status and two low status members made decisions on two standard choice-dilemma problems. For each group member, compliance, persuasion, recidivism of opinion, perceived competence-influence, and attractiveness were measured. The results of the T-test and correlational analysis, conducted upon the differences between respective values for a high and average low status individuals, revealed that in both, ad hoc and real groups, high status members had stronger actual and perceived influence on group decisions and attitudes of other group members than low status individuals. In ad hoc and real groups, high status members were the first advocates more frequently than low status members. Analysis of variance showed that the influence of high status members was the strongest, if they were also the first advocates. At the same time, the public compliance of low status members under power pressure, and therefore, consequent recidivism of opinion was significant only in the real groups and not in the ad hoc groups. High status members were first advocates much more frequently in the real groups than in the ad hoc groups. Perceived influence of group members strongly correlated with likability only in the real groups. The correlation was close to zero in the ad hoc groups. Based on our previous study on “status equalization phenomenon” in ad hoc groups communicating electronically, we suggest that in real groups as well, the influence of status can be controlled, at least partially, by technically monitoring access of group members to the first advocacy.

Social Exchange in Group Consensus Development: Face-to-Face versus Electronic Mail

A sequence of experimental studies (Kiesler et al., 1984; Siegel et al., 1986) revealed that computer media had an unexpected inflammatory effect on group discussions. E.g, in comparison with face-to-face, computer-mediated groups exhibited more uninhibited verbal behavior (such as swearing and name calling). In this study we attempted theoretical explanation of each case of uninhibition encountered in content analysis of group discussions obtained during recently conducted experiment. The social exchange model (Dubrovsky, 1986) was used for this purpose. The model was empirically specified for group consensus development by means of a special questionnaire. Its predictions were then tested against available experimental group discussions material. This study offers theoretical explanation to most of the observed cases of uninhibited verbal behavior in computer-mediated discussions. It contributes to our understanding of a group consensus development process. It increases the validity of the social exchange model.

Simultaneous Mode versus Sequential Mode in Real-Time Computer-Mediated Conferencing

A ‘standard’ simultaneous response mode of computer-mediated real-time conferencing was compared to a sequential response mode in order to examine whether deficiences in the former were responsible for earlier observations of arousal and disinhibited behavior of participants towards one another. Twenty four discussions of twelve groups of three and the responses on a postexperimental “preferences-difficulties” questionnaire were analyzed. It was found that both the modes have deficiences which could contribute to arousal and disinhibition. Main deficiences of the simultaneous and sequential modes are identified and discussed. Recommendations for design of conference software based on the analyses are suggested.

Effects of Network Pattern and Status Congruence on Computer-Mediated Group Decision Making

Classic experimental studies on restrictive communication networks concluded that network patterns and status congruency affect efficiency, satisfaction, and leadership of group decision making. This experiment had a two-fold purpose: (1) to determine if computer-mediated communication would effect the results of these studies; and (2) to assess centrality of network position as a context cue of social status. The results suggested that network pattern retained its influence in computer-mediated groups, while influence of status congruence was weakened by the equalization effects of the computer media. The results also indicated that a center position in the computer network did serve a social-context cue of status: a high-status person exerted status influence only occupying the hub position. Thus, assignment of group members to network positions of equal or different centrality can be used as means of controlling influence of status and authority in computer-mediated groups.

Cross-Cultural Comparison of Status Effects on Group Decision Making

The purpose of this study was a comparison of influence of formal status on group decision making for two cultures, the United States and India. Two identical experiments were conducted on American and Indian subjects. In both samples 36 male and female students, 12 graduate MBA and 24 freshmen or sophomores were randomly assigned to 12 groups of three in such a way that each group comprised of one graduate and two undergraduate members. Graduate students and undergraduates respectively represented high and low “specific” statuses, while male and female students respectively represented high and low “diffuse” statuses. Prior to group discussions, the participants introduced themselves to the group by stating, among other things, their academic status. Two standard “choice-dilemma” problems were discussed by each group with the order of the problems randomly counterbalanced. The experimental procedure followed the “risky shift” paradigm. Analysis of variance revealed that educational status had significant effects for both samples: graduate students “complied” and were persuaded less and were perceived as more competent-influential than undergraduates. However, there was a substantial difference between the Indian and the U.S. samples in the status effects of gender: gender had significant main status effects on “compliance”, persuasion, and perceived competence-influence only for the Indian sample. These findings are consistent with our understanding of relatively more status-conscious and male-dominated society in India than in USA.