Vítor Félix

Halogen bonding in water results in enhanced anion recognition in acyclic and rotaxane hosts

Halogen bonding (XB), the attractive interaction between an electron-deficient halogen atom and a Lewis base, has undergone a dramatic development as an intermolecular force analogous to hydrogen bonding (HB). However, its utilization in the solution phase remains underdeveloped. Furthermore, the design of receptors capable of strong and selective recognition of anions in water remains a significant challenge. Here we demonstrate the superiority of halogen bonding over hydrogen bonding for strong anion binding in water, to the extent that halide recognition by a simple acyclic mono-charged receptor is achievable. Quantification of iodide binding by rotaxane hosts reveals the strong binding by the XB-rotaxane is driven exclusively by favourable enthalpic contributions arising from the halogen-bonding interactions, whereas weaker association with the HB-rotaxanes is entropically driven. These observations demonstrate the unique nature of halogen bonding in water as a strong alternative interaction to the ubiquitous hydrogen bonding in molecular recognition and assembly.

Fluorescent Charge-Assisted Halogen-Bonding Macrocyclic Halo-Imidazolium Receptors for Anion Recognition and Sensing in Aqueous Media

The synthesis and anion binding properties of a new family of fluorescent halogen bonding (XB) macrocyclic halo-imidazolium receptors are described. The receptors contain chloro-, bromo-, and iodo-imidazolium motifs incorporated into a cyclic structure using naphthalene spacer groups. The large size of the iodine atom substituents resulted in the isolation of anti and syn conformers of the iodo-imidazoliophane, whereas the chloro- and bromo-imidazoliophane analogues exhibit solution dynamic conformational behavior. The syn iodo-imidazoliophane isomer forms novel dimeric isostructural XB complexes of 2:2 stoichiometry with bromide and iodide anions in the solid state. Solution phase DOSY NMR experiments indicate iodide recognition takes place via cooperative convergent XB-iodide 1:1 stoichiometric binding in aqueous solvent mixtures. (1)H NMR and fluorescence spectroscopic titration experiments with a variety of anions in the competitive CD(3)OD/D(2)O (9:1) aqueous solvent mixture demonstrated the bromo- and syn iodo-imidazoliophane XB receptors to bind selectively iodide and bromide respectively, and sense these halide anions exclusively via a fluorescence response. The protic-, chloro-, and anti iodo-imidazoliophane receptors proved to be ineffectual anion complexants in this aqueous methanolic solvent mixture. Computational DFT and molecular dynamics simulations corroborate the experimental observations that bromo- and syn iodo-imidazoliophane XB receptors form stable cooperative convergent XB associations with bromide and iodide.

Halogen bond anion templated assembly of an imidazolium pseudorotaxane

Halogen bonding has been exploited in the assembly of an interpenetrated molecular system. The strength of chloride-anion-templated pseudorotaxane formation with a 2-bromo-functionalized imidazolium threading component and an isophthalamide macrocycle (see picture) is significantly enhanced compared to hydrogen-bonded pseudorotaxane analogues. (Figure Presented).

Chloride, carboxylate and carbonate transport by ortho-phenylenediamine-based bisureas

Highly potent but structurally simple transmembrane anion transporters are reported that function at receptor to lipid ratios as low as 1:1000000. The compounds, based on the simple ortho-phenylenediamine-based bisurea scaffold, have been studied for their ability to facilitate chloride/nitrate and chloride/bicarbonate antiport, and HCl symport processes using a combination of ion selective electrode and fluorescence techniques. In addition, the transmembrane transport of dicarboxylate anions (maleate and fumarate) by the compounds was examined. Molecular dynamics simulations showed that these compounds permeate the membrane more easily than other promising receptors corroborating the experimental efflux data. Moreover, cell based assays revealed that the majority of the compounds showed cytotoxicity in cancer cells, which may be linked to their ability to function as ion transporters.

Sulfate anion templated synthesis of a triply interlocked capsule

Sulfate templation has been used in the synthesis of a novel tris-urea-based triply interlocked capsule, whose structure has been verified by DOSY NMR, mass spectrometry and molecular modelling investigations.

Polyaza Cryptand Receptor Selective for Dihydrogen Phosphate

A hexaamine cage with pyridyl spacers was synthesized in good yield by a [2+3] Schiff-base condensation followed by sodium borohydride reduction. The protonation constants of the receptor as well as its association constants with Cl(-), NO(3)(-), AcO(-), ClO(4)(-), SO(4)(2-), H(2)PO(4)(-), and H(2)AsO(4)(-) were determined by potentiometry at 298.2 +/- 0.1 K in H(2)O/MeOH (50:50 v/v) and at ionic strength 0.10 +/- 0.01 M in KTsO. These studies revealed that although dihydrogen phosphate is less charged than sulfate, it is still appreciably bound by the receptor at low pH, suggesting that the pyridyl nitrogen is accepting hydrogen bonds from dihydrogen phosphate. It is also shown that dihydrogen phosphate is capable of effectively competing with sulfate for the receptor at higher pH, being selective for hydrogen phosphate at pH about 7.0. (31)P NMR experiments supported these findings. The fact that the receptor shows such a marked preference for hydrogen phosphate based mainly in its hydrogen bond accepting/donating ability in a highly competitive medium such as water/methanol mixed solvent is quite remarkable. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction determinations of anion associations between H(6)pyr(6+) receptor and nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate are consistent with the existence of [(H(6)pyr)(NO(3))(3)(H(2)O)(3)](3+), [(H(6)pyr)(SO(4))(2)(H(2)O)(4)](2+), and [(H(6)pyr)(HPO(4))(2)(H(2)PO(4))(H(2)O)(2)](+) cations. One nitrate anion is embedded into the H(6)pyr(6+) cage of the first supermolecule whereas in the second and third ones the anions are located in the periphery of the macrobicycle.

A Catenane Assembled through a Single Charge‐Assisted Halogen Bond

Interlocked molecules have captured chemists’ imagination owing to their nontrivial topology and the promise of their potential nanotechnological uses as molecular machines[1] and in chemical sensor applications.[2] The synthesis of such sophisticated architectures is a challenge, and as a consequence this has necessitated the implementation of imaginative cation,[3] anion,[4] and neutral[5] templation methodologies, which use a combination of complementary Lewis acid–base, electrostatic, and hydrogen-bonding interactions for component assembly. Halogen bonding (XB) is the attractive highly directional, noncovalent interaction between an electron-deficient halogen atom and a Lewis base.[6] The scope of XB in solid-state crystal engineering has been intensively explored for a number of years,[7] however, in spite of the complementary analogy to ubiquitous hydrogen bonding, it is only in recent times that investigations into the application of solution-phase XB interactions to molecular recognition processes, self-assembly, and catalysis have resulted in this field developing rapidly.[8] Indeed, in conjunction with anion templation, we have used XB to assemble interpenetrated and interlocked molecular frameworks.[8b–d]

Sulfate anion templation of a neutral pseudorotaxane assembly using an indolocarbazole threading component.

The first example of anion templated pseudorotaxane formation between two neutral components in solution and in surface assembled monolayers is described.

Interlocked Host Anion Recognition by an Indolocarbazole-Containing [2]Rotaxane

The design, synthesis, structure, and anion-binding properties of the first indolocarbazole-containing interlocked structure are described. The novel [2]rotaxane molecular structure incorporates a neutral indolocarbazole-containing axle component which is encircled by a tetracationic macrocycle functionalized with an isophthalamide anion recognition motif. (1)H NMR and UV-visible spectroscopies and X-ray crystallography demonstrated the importance of pi-donor-acceptor, CH...pi, and electrostatic interactions in the assembly of pseudorotaxanes between the electron-deficient tetracationic macrocycle and a series of pi-electron-rich indolocarbazole derivatives. Subsequent urethane stoppering of one of these complexes afforded a [2]rotaxane, which was shown by (1)H NMR spectroscopic titration experiments to exhibit enhanced chloride and bromide anion recognition compared to its non-interlocked components. Computational molecular dynamics simulations provide further insight into the mechanism and structural nature of the anion recognition process, confirming it to involve cooperative hydrogen-bond donation from both macrocycle and indolocarbazole components of the rotaxane. The observed selectivity of the [2]rotaxane for chloride is interpreted in terms of its unique interlocked binding cavity, defined by the macrocycle isophthalamide and indolocarbazole N-H protons, which is complementary in size and shape to this halide guest.

The role of lipophilicity in transmembrane anion transport

The transmembrane anion transport activity of a series of synthetic molecules inspired by the structure of tambjamine alkaloids can be tuned by varying the lipophilicity of the receptor, with carriers within a certain log P range performing best.