Vivian de Klerk

Language shift in Grahamstown : a case study of selected Xhosa-speakers

A number ofscholars (Fasold 1984; Aitchison 1991; Denison 1977; Dorian 1980; Gal 1979) have examined the issue oflanguage maintenance and shift, trying to discover why certain languages (or language variants) sometimes replace each other among some Speakers, particularly in certain domains of linguistic behaviour under some conditions or intergroup contact. This article provides an overview ofthe mainfactors that have been identifiedas playing an important role in influencing language shift and then reports on the relative importance of these factors in a survey that examined the experiences andattitudes of Xhosa-speaking parents who have recently chosen to send their children to English-medium schools in Grahamstown (Eastern Cape, South Africa). The research was carried out during 1998, and the project was a multifaceted quantitative and qualitative longitudinal study involving responses to a postal questionnaire sent to all non-English parents at English-medium schools in the town, and follow-up Interviews with 26 parents. The aim ofthe project äs a whole was to observe whether there is any evidence of a process of language shift taking place from Xhosa to English, both on an individual level and on a broader societal basis, to assess the linguistic and psychosocial effects on individuals who move to English-medium schools, and to monitor changing perceptions, language loyalty, and attitudes over this period. This paper attempts to assess the relative importance of a ränge of variables influencing the rate of possible language shift.

Expletives: Men Only?.

In this paper it is suggested that there might be a relationship between social power and expletive usage. After a general discussion of the linguistic correlates of social power, and of expletives and their functions, the question of whether there is any relationship between the sex of the speaker and the use of expletives is addressed. A review of literature on the topic reveals a decidedly and rocentric bias in the use of these terms (which are seen to enjoy a covert prestige value in many communities), despite a noticeable lack of any reliable supportive data. The second half of the paper reports on an investigation carried out on 160 adolescents in which an attempt was made to measure the respective effects of the following variables on the use of expletives: sex, age, and type of school. Stereotyped expectations of coy, non‐swearing females are not upheld (although sex differences are significant), and a measure of support is found in favor of the hypothesis that there might be a relationship betwee...

Black South African English: Where to from here?

Black South African English is generally regarded as the variety of English commonly used by mother-tongue speakers of South Africas indigenous African languages in areas where English is not the language of the majority. This paper explores some of the problems involved in defining this variety, problems such as whether it is a ‘new’ variety of English or a dialect, and problems relating to whose English it is: the English of those learners who have encountered only a smattering of English in informal contexts or the variety of English acquired during formal schooling. The second half of the paper focuses on the possible future of Black South African English (BSAE) against the backdrop of South Africas new multilingual policy. Reasons for the continued appeal of English are examined, alongside the range of factors influencing the possible future growth of BSAE as a distinct variety. It is argued that South Africans are unlikely ever to be free not to learn English, owing to the huge economic, political and ideological constraints which make the ‘choice’ of English inevitable. The success of current efforts to resist value judgements and recognise the worth of BSAE will depend not only on the goodwill of South Africans, and on the cooperation of all speakers of English, world-wide, but on the rate at which the variety drifts away from recognised standard forms of English.

Linguistic stereotypes: nice accent — nice person?

This study reports on an attitude survey using a matched-guise technique among Speakers ofthe three main languages ofthe Eastern Cape: English, Afrikaans, and Xhosa. We wished to investigate the extent to which Speakers in the area were using language and accent to make judgments aboutpeople, and to examine the stereotypical views regarding these languages and their Speakers. The relationship in South Africa between power, stereotypes, and language is briefly examined in order to show how, owing to events over the last 200 yearst power is very unequally distributed, and social position depends primarily and significantly on race and linguistic affiliation, which have determined education and employment opportunities. A detailed analysis ofresults reveals that discrimination against people may well be linked to the sort of language they use.

Codeswitching, Borrowing and Mixing in a Corpus of Xhosa English

The paper analyses selected aspects of the codeswitching behaviour in a spoken corpus of the English of 326 people, all of them mother-tongue speakers of Xhosa (a local African language in South Africa), and all of whom would see themselves as Xhosa/English bilinguals. The corpus comprises approximately 550,000 transcribed words of spontaneous, relaxed, oral discourse in English between pairs of Xhosaspeaking interlocutors, discussing a wide range of topics. While the usual pattern in bilingual speech is to use the L1 as matrix language and the L2 as embedded language, in this corpus the opposite is the case, as interlocutors were interviewed in English (the L2). The corpus therefore offers a ‘mirror image’, in a sense, of normal codeswitching behaviour. Using Wordsmith (a concordancer programme), all incidences of codeswitching into Xhosa during these conversations were identified and analysed in an effort to reveal underlying patterns. Examination of the amount and nature of codeswitching in the corpus promised to throw some light on the extent to which participants are genuinely bilingual, in terms of their ability to converse comfortably in English.

Slang: A Male Domain?.

A brief overview of various definitions of the problematic term “slang” precedes a discussion of stereotyped perceptions of slang and whether it is a male or female linguistic characteristic. Following this is a report on an investigation carried out on 160 South African adolescents, which attempted to measure the effect of the following variables on the use of slang: sex, age and type of school. Although interesting sex-related differences are revealed in the results, which can be correlated with the theme of social power and status, it is argued that the expected differences between males and females in this area are not as striking as one is led to believe by literature in the field, and that the gap is likely to close: it is probably not the sex of the speaker alone that influences slang usage, but also, and perhaps more importantly, his/her age and scholastic environment.

English in the prison services: a case of breaking the law?

In this paper we report on an investigation into the use of English in a prison in the Eastern Cape Province, run by the Department of Correctional Services (CS) five years after the declaration of an official multilingual policy. The investigation consisted of a range of interviews and observations in this institution, aimed at establishing the extent to which the national language policy is actually being implemented on the ground. Findings suggest that the use of English predominates in the high, official domains, that there is a marked avoidance of Afrikaans, and that Xhosa, the main language of the Eastern Cape Province, increasingly occupies the lower, unofficial domains. Tensions between policy and practice are discussed, and it is argued that the CS has shown that pragmatism is a much stronger force than ideology. While the roles of Xhosa and Afrikaans appear to be in the process of reversing in the Grahamstown prison, English has emerged as stronger there than it has ever been before. And because it will continue to be a necessary prerequisite for the mobility and promotion of staff in the country as a whole, and the lingua franca for an increasingly mobile criminal population (which means the prisons are likely to become increasingly linguistically diverse, rather than settling into regional patterns), everyone will have to have some proficiency in English, which, ironically, will promote and strengthen it even more.

Language contact and ethnolinguistic identity in an Eastern Cape army camp

This article examines the ethnolinguistic consequences of change within a South African National Defence Force army camp. Since 1994, the army has become racially, and hence ethnically, integrated. This has resulted in Speakers ofthe various South African languages living and working together in the same environment. Research was conducted to investigate the consequences of this interethnolinguistic contact. A multi-method research approach revealed that although all eleven South African official languages were represented in the camp, English was the language used for general communication, instruction, and command. Army personnel were generally supportive of this policy. Furthermore, at the same time as identifying with the social Institution of the army, their perceptions of their own ethnolinguistic identities did not seem to be negatively affected.

The discourse of postgraduate seminars

Abstract Video recordings of a range of postgraduate seminars in the Arts Faculty at a South African university were made and analyzed, in order to define the current nature of this particular form of educational practice in South African tertiary institutions. Recent demographic changes in formerly White universities are having a significant effect on the nature of interaction in formal discussion groups. Despite a common perception that at a tertiary level tutors and students are equally entitled to speak and all contributions equally valued, this article reveals that postgraduate seminars are sites of competition for the floor and that there are significant imbalances in participation by different groups in this competitive speaking environment; it is further argued that these imbalances reflect different (culture- and gender-specific) assumptions about what constitutes appropriate participation and also, to some degree, previous learned discourse patterns associated with schooling experience.

The Cross-Marriage Language Dilemma: His Language or Hers?

The issue of language maintenance and shift has long been a matter of interest in linguistic research (Denison, 1977; Gal, 1979; Dorian, 1980; Fasold, 1984; Aitchison, 1991) and considerable progress has been made in trying to isolate the factors which affect such trends in usage at a macro level, in large linguistic communities. This article reports on language shift on a micro level, in a study carried out on 10 cross-language English/Afrikaans marriages. The study explores the language dynamics, attitudes and usage patterns within these families, as well as reporting on the relative levels of success in achieving family bilingualism. It also provides an overview of factors influencing language usage in these homes, and offers a view on possible long-term linguistic outcomes for these families.The issue of language maintenance and shift has long been a matter of interest in linguistic research (Denison, 1977; Gal, 1979; Dorian, 1980; Fasold, 1984; Aitchison, 1991) and considerable progress has been made in trying to isolate the factors which affect such trends in usage at a macro level, in large linguistic communities. This article reports on language shift on a micro level, in a study carried out on 10 cross-language English/Afrikaans marriages. The study explores the language dynamics, attitudes and usage patterns within these families, as well as reporting on the relative levels of success in achieving family bilingualism. It also provides an overview of factors influencing language usage in these homes, and offers a view on possible long-term linguistic outcomes for these families.