Vivienne E. Duggan

Diagnosis of Aorto‐Iliac Thrombosis in a Quarter Horse Foal Using Doppler Ultrasound and Nuclear Scintigraphy

A5-day-old 52-kg Quarter Horse filly presented to the Boren Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, Oklahoma State University College of Veterinary Medicine, with a 1-day history of diarrhea, lethargy, and weakness. The foal was recumbent and depressed with tacky, injected mucous membranes; a capillary refill time of 4 seconds; rectal temperature of 101.38F; tachycardia (180 bpm); and tachypnea (80 bpm). The extremities were cold with poor peripheral pulse quality, and dehydration was estimated to be 10–12%. The foal had malodorous diarrhea. During the initial examination, the foal made attempts to rise. With assistance, it could stand on its forelimbs and briefly support itself on the left hind limb, but the right hind limb was flaccid and non–weight bearing. No site of trauma, infectious synovitis, or osteomyelitis was obvious, and although reaction to stimulation was reduced in both hind limbs, deep pain perception was present in all limbs. Evaluation of initial laboratory testing identified an IgG concentration .800 mg/dL; mild azotemia (creatinine, 1.9 mg/dL); hypoalbuminemia (1.6 g/dL); neutrophilia (3,312/mL); and lymphocytosis (5,244/mL). Fibrinogen concentration was normal. Attempts to obtain an arterial blood sample for blood gas analysis using the left lateral metatarsal artery were unsuccessful because of poor peripheral perfusion. Venous blood gas analysis identified metabolic acidosis. Colitis and septicemia were suspected based on clinical signs, and a blood culture was submitted. A sample of feces was submitted for aerobic and anaerobic culture, including culture for Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella spp, ELISA for Clostridium difficile toxins A and B, and electron microscopy for rotavirus and coronavirus. A presumptive diagnosis of colitis and septic shock accompanied by decreased hind limb perfusion was made. Spinal or pelvic trauma also was considered as a diagnostic possibility for the hind limb dysfunction at this time. Initial treatment consisted of IV replacement fluid therapy and sodium bicarbonate (4.5 mEq/kg over 12 hours); broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy (ceftiofur sodium, 10 mg/kg IV q 8h and metronidazole, 15 mg/kg PO q 8h); and ketoprofen (2.2 mg/kg IV once) for shock and possible trauma. Omeprazole (4 mg/kg PO q 24h) was administered for ulcer prophylaxis. To facilitate resolution of the diarrhea, milk was withheld for the first 12 hours, and nutrition was supple-

Antimicrobial resistance in commensal faecal Escherichia coli of hospitalised horses

The objective of this study was to examine the impact of hospitalisation and antimicrobial drug administration on the prevalence of resistance in commensal faecal E. coli of horses. Faecal samples were collected from ten hospitalised horses treated with antimicrobials, ten hospitalised horses not treated with antimicrobials and nine non-hospitalised horses over a consecutive five day period and susceptibility testing was performed on isolated E. coli. Results revealed that hospitalisation alone was associated with increased prevalence of antimicrobial resistance and multidrug resistance in commensal E. coli of horses. Due to the risk of transfer of resistance between commensal and pathogenic bacteria, veterinarians need to be aware of possible resistance in commensal bacteria when treating hospitalised horses.

Use of qualitative methods to identify solutions to selected equine welfare problems in Ireland

This paper explores the views of those in the Irish equine industry, organisations and government regarding necessary improvements to equine welfare in Ireland at unregulated gatherings and during the disposal process. Three qualitative research methods were employed, namely semistructured interviews, focus groups and a structured, facilitated workshop. Representatives from industry, welfare societies, socially disadvantaged groupings and government engaged with this process and shared their views regarding horse welfare and implementable solutions with merit to address welfare problems. A consensus was achieved that equine welfare in Ireland could be improved by the development of a comprehensive identification system, a Code of Practice for horse gatherings, a horse licensing scheme, ring-fenced funding to promote responsible, humane horse disposal and better means of raising awareness of the value of safeguarding horse welfare for the benefit of all parties.

Ascending placentitis in the mare: A review.

Ascending placentitis is a condition that occurs late in pregnancy when bacteria enter the sterile uterus from the lower reproductive tract. It leads to abortion or the birth of premature and weakened foals. Early detection and treatment of this condition is vital for ensuring the production of a viable foal.Mares with ascending placentitis often present in late term pregnancy with signs of premature udder development and premature lactation. There may be a vulvar discharge. Early detection of placental problems is possible using trans-abdominal or trans-rectal ultrasonography. Hormones such as progesterone and relaxin may be measured as indicators of foetal stress and placental failure. Postpartum foetal membranes may be thickened and contain a fibronecrotic exudate. The region most affected is the cervical star. Definitive diagnosis of ascending placentitis is by histopathological examination of the chorioallantoic membrane.Ideal treatment strategies are aimed at curing the infection and prolonging the pregnancy to as close to term as possible and consist of anti-microbials, anti-inflammatories and hormonal support.Swabs are taken from affected mares to determine antibiotic sensitivity and to aid in treatment of foals born from these mares which are at risk of becoming septic. If detected early enough, the chances of producing a viable foal are greatly increased.

A demographic survey of unwanted horses in Ireland 2005-2010

BackgroundThe Irish Horse Industry expanded during the Celtic Tiger boom years, then contracted in the current economic recession. High value horses were traditionally controlled through sale at public auction, private sales and sales to dealers; these are now also being reduced by decreases in production (> 40%), and increases in retirement, re-homing, euthanasia and disposal through Category 2 plants and abattoirs. The absence or banning of horse abattoirs has been shown to have very significant welfare social and economic consequences in the USA. This study described the currently available data on the demographics of unwanted horses in Ireland from 2005 to 2010.ResultsThe majority of horses euthanised by practicing veterinarians are destroyed on medical grounds but the number euthanised at the request of welfare groups and the state, as well as welfare related calls and the number of horses involved in these calls and subsequent visits is increasing reflecting the increasing involvement of the veterinary profession in equine welfare. Welfare groups have limited resources and do not have a tradition of recording data, but they too have reported increasing calls, visits and numbers of horses per visit. Welfare groups provide significant service to equine welfare and the community. Local Authorities report similar trends. Over 300 horses were found dead or required immediate or subsequent euthanasia following welfare group and local authority visits in 2010, which is of national concern. The majority of local authority interfaces with unwanted horses are with urban (60%) rather than rural (40%) horses. Mortality figures are poor indicators of non-fatal neglect. More horses were admitted into the care of local authorities than welfare groups, reflecting significant state and taxpayer investment in the control of low value horses. Category 2 plants and abattoirs represent a significant state investment in licensing and control in the national interest. Abattoirs provide an increasingly important and essential service for the disposal of unwanted horses. Despite the increase in unwanted horses, Ireland is a minority contributor to the EU slaughter total.ConclusionsThere is a need for annual demographic data compilation and review of the numbers of unwanted horses and ponies within the horse industry to assist policy makers and legislators.

Equine post-breeding endometritis: A review

The deposition of semen, bacteria and debris in the uterus of the mare after breeding normally induces a self-limiting endometritis. The resultant fluid and inflammatory products are cleared by 48 hours post cover. Mares that are susceptible to persistent post-breeding endometritis (PPBEM) have impaired uterine defence and clearance mechanisms, making them unable to resolve this inflammation within the normal time. This persists beyond 48 hours post-breeding and causes persistent fluid accumulation within the uterus. Mares with PPBEM have an increased rate of embryonic loss and a lower overall pregnancy rate than those without the condition. To enhance conception rates, mares at high risk need optimal breeding management as well as early diagnosis, followed by the most appropriate treatment. This article reviews the pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of PPBEM and the management of affected mares.

A retrospective study of horses investigated for weight loss despite a good appetite (2002–2011)

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY Weight loss despite a good appetite is a frequent diagnostic challenge for equine veterinarians; however, there are few objective reports and little descriptive information regarding risk factors and prognostic indicators. OBJECTIVES To provide a descriptive epidemiological analysis of horses evaluated for weight loss despite a good appetite and evaluate relationships between historical and clinicopathological findings and final outcome (survival vs. nonsurvival) to identify risk factors and prognostic indicators. METHODS Medical records of horses referred for investigation of weight loss despite a good appetite were reviewed. Data collated included history, case details, clinical and diagnostic findings, diagnoses and outcome. Univariable associations were evaluated with a Mann-Whitney U test (continuous data), Fishers exact test (categorical or binary data) or Pearsons rank correlation (continuous data), with P≤0.05 significant. RESULTS Forty cases met the inclusion criteria. Total protein (P = 0.004) and albumin concentrations (P = 0.0008) at admission were higher in survivors than nonsurvivors, with total protein (r(2) = 0.31; P = 0.002) and albumin (r(2) = 0.36; P = 0.0002) positively correlated with outcome. Hypoproteinaemic (P = 0.008, odds ratio (OR) = 12, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.99-72.4) and hypoalbuminaemic (P = 0.0009, OR = 28, 95% CI = 2.94-266.6) animals were at greater odds for nonsurvival. Body condition score was positively correlated with total protein (r(2) = 0.16; P = 0.05) and albumin (r(2) = 0.53; P<0.0001) concentrations at admission and duration of clinical signs (r(2) = 0.19; P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS The severity of hypoproteinaemia and hypoalbuminaemia were related with nonsurvival. Body condition score and albumin concentration could potentially be used as prognostic indicators for survival. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE These findings highlight the importance of body condition assessment in conjunction with clinicopathological evaluation in horses with weight loss despite a good appetite.

A demographic survey of unwanted horses in Ireland in 2011 and totals for 2012 and a comparison with 2010

This report compiles the available information on unwanted horses in Ireland for 2011 and 2012 and builds upon the previous report for the period 2005 to 2010. Similar trends are present in the high value responsible ownership category and the practicing veterinary profession although extensively involved in horse welfare, euthanises a small proportion of Ireland’s unwanted horses. Welfare groups have limited resources and a limited ability to deal with such an extensive problem, which has involved very large numbers of horses. Local authorities continue to have to devote significant efforts and calls on public finances to deal with unwanted horses. Those that they have to deal with are, in the main, not identifiable by either passports or microchips. Category 2 plants and abattoirs continue to provide the principal means of disposal of unwanted horses. The need for abattoirs continues to increase and it is essential that these facilities remain in operation. They processed more than 49,000 horses between 2010 and 2012. The samples they have to submit for Trichinella testing are the most sensitive indicator of the extent of the unwanted horse problem and the most immediate source of information on when it may begin to abate. Trichinella sample numbers and this by inference, horses ponies and donkeys sent to slaughter have fallen by some 35% from 2012 numbers, in the year to date (2013). This may reflect the commercial decision to cease horse slaughter by two slaughterhouses that had hitherto provided this service. Their commercial decision was not in any way related to the identification of fraudulent mislabeled beef in other plants.

Report of the International Equine Influenza Roundtable Expert Meeting at Le Touquet, Normandy, February 2013

Equine influenza (EI) is an important equine respiratory pathogen and a high-priority disease for the equine industry globally. Equine influenza virus (EIV) has a global distribution; it is endemic in many countries and there are occasional incursions in Japan, South Africa and Hong Kong, with only Australia, New Zealand and Iceland being considered free. In 2007, EIV was introduced into Japan and Australia, severely disrupting the equine industry, with control and eradication costing an estimated

Case study of equine welfare on an Irish farm: 2007 to 2009

AU1.6 billion in Australia. Equine influenza virus has subsequently been detected in recently imported, vaccinated horses in quarantine stations in Japan and Dubai. Many of the bodies responsible for regulating racing and equestrian sport in Europe and North America have required EIV vaccination since the 1980s, in order to safeguard competition and facilitate the movement of horses. The majority of horses in the racing and competition sectors are vaccinated against EIV, but outside these sectors the proportion of vaccinated horses is unknown. In most countries, too few horses are vaccinated to provide the herd protection required to prevent propagation of an epizootic, if an incursion of an EIV strain with sufficient antigenic differences to currently circulating strains were to occur. Surveillance in order to monitor outbreaks and to characterise the antigenic and genetic characteristics of circulating EIV strains, in particular changes in the haemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein, is central to EI control. France, Germany, Ireland, the UK and the USA have the most extensive surveillance schemes. Haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays and HA sequence data allow predictions of antigenic and genetic drift to be made. Antigenic mapping (cartography) is used to assist interpretation of HI data. Haemagglutinin sequence data are shared between collaborating laboratories, which facilitates phylogenetic analysis and mapping of the evolutionary changes in EIV. The expert surveillance panel (ESP) of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) reviews these data and publishes recommendations for EI vaccine strain updates periodically. Most recently (2010), the ESP recommended that H7N7 viruses and Eurasian H3N8 viruses are no longer required and that strains representative of clade 1 (A/eq/South Africa/04/ 2003-like or A/eq/Ohio/2003-like viruses) and clade 2 (A/eq/Richmond/1/ 2007-like viruses) viruses of the Florida sublineage should be included. Equine H3N8 viruses change more slowly than human influenza viruses, and thus ESP recommendations have changed only twice in the last 8 years. However, at the time of writing, there are no EIV vaccines meeting the European regulatory requirements that are completely compliant with these recommendations, probably because updating EI vaccines is comparatively burdensome, time consuming and expensive. Vaccination against EIV is a highly important control measure. Vaccination has had a significant beneficial effect on the prevalence of EIV infection, but there is no room for complacency: outbreaks still occur annually, despite vaccination. In 2012, individual cases or outbreaks of EI associated with clade 1 and clade 2 viruses, closely related antigenically, but not identical, to the recommended vaccine strains were recorded in both nonvaccinated and vaccinated horses in Argentina, Chile, France, Germany, Ireland, the UK and the USA. The lack of clarity and the conflicting opinions on key aspects of EI within the European equine industry create a risk that the value of EI vaccination may be challenged, with the potential outcome that vaccination, and hence (national) herd protection, may fall to a level at which the prevalence of EI increases, equine welfare decreases and the equine industry experiences significant economic losses through interference with competition, breeding, movement and trade. A meeting of international experts on EI was held in Le Touquet, France, on 6 February 2013. The goal of the meeting was to address and reach consensus on some of the most pressing questions on EI and its control, including surveillance, the spectrum of clinical disease, diagnosis, biosecurity, protective immunity, key factors in vaccine selection, vaccine efficacy, vaccine strain updates, reasons for vaccination failure and future research. Nine critical questions on current issues in EIV became apparent during the panel’s discussions and form the basis for this report.