Volkan Altay

Halophytes in the East Mediterranean – Their Medicinal and Other Economical Values

The East Mediterranean includes Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan and Israel. It is a typical transition zone between the Saharo-Arabian desert biome and temperate climates. A total of 304 halophytic taxa from 50 families belonging to 172 genera are distributed in the region. The families with the highest number of taxa are; Chenopodiaceae (51 taxa-16.78 %), Poaceae (44 taxa-14.47 %), Asteraceae (23 taxa-7.57 %), Fabaceae (22 taxa-7.24 %), Cyperaceae (17 taxa-5.59 %) and Plumbaginaceae (13 taxa-4.28 %) respectively. They constitute 55.93 % of the halophytes distributed in the East Mediterranean. The genera with the highest number of species are; Limonium (13), Juncus (11), Atriplex, Salsola (8 each), Suaeda (7), Tamarix, Plantago, Silene (6 each) and Euphorbia, Centaurium, Bromus (5 each). Out of 304 taxa 9 are endemics, 24 are rare plants, 16 taxa are vulnerable, 9 taxa endangered, 6 taxa critical and two taxa have lower risk. These taxa can be grouped as; Xerophytes (79), Psammohalophytes (73), Hygrohalophytes (68), Halophytes (56), Xerohalophytes (22) and ruderals (6). Out of the halophyte taxa listed 124 taxa (40.79 %) are of economic importance. The most widely used parts of the plants are leaves (28.24 %) and roots (21.18 %). The most common preparation of the traditional folk medicine is decoction (42.55 %), followed by infusion (11.70 %), poultice (10.64 %) and powder (8.51 %). In addition to these some plants are consumed fresh for the treatment of some ailments, their percentage lies around 10.64, but consumption as cooked meal is 8.51 %. A majority of these plants are used for the treatment of urinary system disorders (21.74 %). Many halophytic species are used as either forage or fodder, even as ornamentals, but some are poisonous. These taxa play an important role in the control of soil erosion. They are also used to clean contaminated soils and water. Similarly Cynodon dactylon, Ruppia maritima and Inula crithmoides can be used to produce biomass through biosaline agriculture.

A Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal Pteridophytes in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia

Pteridophytes are among the oldest land plants, dating back to the Carboniferous period as the dominant type of vegetation. At present these are distributed throughout the world, including tropical, temperate, and Arctic environments, but most of the species are located in tropical regions. They flourish on shady, damp areas, but are also found on rocks and dry grounds, making an important contribution to the earth’s plant diversity. Being the second largest group of vascular plants, they form a significant, dominant component of many plant communities. The pteridophytes are not of major, direct economic importance, with one possible exception. But still, they are found to provide food, medicine, fiber, craft, fuel, and building material and decoration in different cultures of many countries on a global scale. Not much information is available on the economic and medicinal values of this group of plants, when compared to the flowering ones. Main aim of this chapter is to analyze the distribution of traditional knowledge on the medicinally valuable pteridophytes in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia. A total of 103 naturally distributed taxa from this group are used in traditional medicine in these countries. Local people in these countries generally use these as herbal remedies for digestive, respiratory, urogenital, dermatological, cardiovascular, gynecological, ear, nose, and throat, and skeletal-muscular systems; neurological and psychological diseases; and mouth and teeth and other ailments. The three highly prevalent uses of the plants from this group are in Turkey diuretic (10 taxa), kidney stone (10 taxa), and stomachache (8 taxa); in Pakistan wounds (11 taxa), febrifuge (7 taxa), and snake bites (7 taxa); in Malaysia cough (6 taxa), skin diseases (5 taxa), and hair tonic (5 taxa). The comparison reveals that five taxa are used for the same and/or similar applications in Turkey and Pakistan. These taxa are Adiantum capillus-veneris L. (for bronchitis, chest tightness/chest pain, cough, diuretic, expectorant, shortness of breath, and gastrointestinal diseases), Equisetum arvense L. (for cystitis, diabetes, gallbladder diseases/gallstone, hair straighteners/hair tonic, kidney stone, prostate diseases, urinary tract diseases, and wound), E. ramosissimum L. (for diuretic, skin diseases, wound, kidney stone, and sand/renal disorders), Osmunda regalis L. (for rickets and rheumatism), and Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. (for intestinal parasites/against worms). Pakistan and Malaysia have only one taxon in common used for the same and/or similar applications, Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. as tonic. There is no common taxon between Turkey and Malaysia for similar applications. These countries seem to embody a great potential for evaluation of medicinal pteridophytes due to their interesting folk medicine culture.

A Little-Known and a Little-Consumed Natural Resource: Salicornia

A sustainable conservation and knowledge of genetic resources from our natural wealth is very important for future research. Within this scope, Salicornia has emerged as an important cash crop halophyte for seawater irrigation, because of its high salt tolerance. It is capable of growing under hypersaline conditions and a promising resource to cultivate under extreme climatic conditions in the arid-desert regions. The fleshy Salicornia plants have been historically used for both edible and nonedible purposes. Usage of the plant as a source of soda (sodium carbonate) for glassmaking dates back to centuries. Oriental pharmacopeia reports its medicinal uses. This genus is also well known for its applications as additive in the production of glass and soap, as medicinal herbs and also in some applications as a diet for human consumption and for domestic animals. The fleshy plants are eaten as a green vegetable raw or pickled very much in the coastal belt of the Mediterranean basin and commands a high price in gourmet food markets in Europe and the USA. This review highlights the latest information about the Salicornia genus with an emphasis on its morphological features, taxonomic status, ecophysiological characteristics, cultivation, nutritional features (as human and animal food), and other economical uses.

Molecular and ecological investigations on the wild populations of Glycyrrhiza L. taxa distributed in the East Mediterranean Area of Turkey

This paper covers studies on the molecular and ecological aspects of G. glabra var. glandulifera, G. flavescens ssp. flavescens and G. echinata collected from Hatay (Turkey); with the aim to better understand their genetic variation and ecological requirements for possible conservation programs. The material including total genomic DNA was extracted by the CTAB, and for PCR reaction, a total of 14 SSR primers developed for Medicago truncatula were used. PCR amplifications were performed in a Multigen® Thermal Cycler. Soil samples were analysed for their texture, pH, total soluble salts, calcium carbonate, total N content, total phosphorus and organic matter content. In order to see the association between genetic, ecological and geographical data, a similarity matrix was generated. Genetic similarity distances between genotypes were correlated with those of Eucledian distances obtained from ecological and geographical data. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed using GenAlEx 6.5 software to determine variation among and within genetic variations. The genetic analysis showed that the highest expected heterozygosity values were obtained from G. glabra while the lowest were obtained from G. echinata. In general heterozygosity values were low, especially for G. echinata. Therefore, variation appears to be lower within each species than among three species. The physical and chemical analysis of soil and plant samples indicates that mineral accumulation in plants is substantially affected by the soil characteristics. There is a need for identification of better strategies for the improvement of varieties, especially for small farmers managing marginal soils. More studies should be conducted in order to safeguard these taxa, especially G. glabra var. glandulifera which is collected intensively due to its economic value, the same is true for endemic taxon G. flavescens ssp. flavescens.

A Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal Plants Used for Diabetes Mellitus in the Traditional Medicine in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia

This chapter includes data on the medicinal and aromatic plants used in the treatment of diabetes in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia. The total number of medicinal plants evaluated in the traditional medicine includes 340 taxa from 66 families and 185 genera in Turkey, 281 taxa from 76 families and 209 genera in Pakistan, and 76 taxa from 43 families and 65 genera in Malaysia. The following families are represented by the largest number of taxa: Rosaceae (49), Lamiaceae (48), Asteraceae (45), Apiaceae (20), and Fabaceae (17) in Turkey; Asteraceae (27), Fabaceae (25), Lamiaceae (14), Cucurbitaceae (12), Apocynaceae (12), and Moraceae (11) in Pakistan; and Fabaceae (8), Acanthaceae (5), Malvaceae and Phyllanthaceae (4 each), and Annonaceae and Zingiberaceae (3 each) in Malaysia. The genera with highest number of taxa are Prunus (11 taxa), Thymus (9 taxa), Quercus (7 taxa), and Juniperus, Hypericum, Crataegus, Pyrus, Rubus, and Salvia (6 taxa each) in Turkey; Ficus (9 taxa), Artemisia (6 taxa), Phyllanthus (5 taxa), and Ziziphus, Solanum, and Fagonia (4 taxa each) in Pakistan; and Phyllanthus (3 taxa) and Piper, Orthosiphon, Sindora, Allium, Annona, Terminalia, and Cnestis (2 taxa each) in Malaysia. The parts commonly used are leaves (107 taxa), aerial parts (104 taxa), fruits (77 taxa), and flowers (55 taxa) in Turkey; leaves (87 taxa), fruits (54 taxa), whole plants (51 taxa), and seeds (41 taxa) in Pakistan; and leaves (35 taxa), root (22 taxa), and fruits (12 taxa) in Malaysia. Common preparations evaluated are decoction (177 taxa), followed by infusion (138 taxa), fresh (65 taxa), and raw (25 taxa) in Turkey; extract (72 taxa), followed by powder (62 taxa), decoction (42 taxa), and boiled (41 taxa) in Pakistan; and decoction (32 taxa), followed by extract (21 taxa) and boiled (13 taxa) in Malaysia. The most commonly used taxa among these are Rosa canina, Teucrium polium, Urtica dioica, Juglans regia, Rubus sanctus, Viscum album ssp. album, Olea europaea, Morus nigra, Prunus dulcis, Thymbra spicata, and Prunus spinosa ssp. dasphylla in Turkey; Syzygium cumini, Allium sativum, Momordica charantia, Justicia adhatoda, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Ficus benghalensis, and Olea ferruginea in Pakistan; and Parkia speciosa, Andrographis paniculata, Averrhoa bilimbi, Momordica charantia, and Morinda citrifolia in Malaysia. A total of 42 taxa are common among Turkey and Pakistan, 11 between Pakistan and Malaysia, and 6 between Turkey and Malaysia. A comparison on the basis of MAPS reveals that in all three areas five taxa commonly used for the diabetes mellitus are Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Momordica charantia, Nigella sativa, and Punica granatum. The three countries seem to embody a great potential for an evaluation of MAPS and interesting folk medicine culture for many disease groups, especially diabetes mellitus.

An Expensive Spice Saffron (Crocus sativus L.): A Case Study from Kashmir, Iran, and Turkey

Saffron, originating from the Arabic word “Zafaran” meaning yellow, is a fascinating spice steeped in rich history. Its secrets stem from the dried red stigmas, which accumulate large amounts of three glucosylated apocarotenoids, namely crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal, which, among the more than 150 volatile and aroma yielding compounds, contribute to the color, bitter flavor, and aroma so typical of saffron. It is reported to have antidepressant, hypnotic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, bronchodilatory, aphrodisiac, inducer of labor, emmenagogue, and several other uses. Owing to extremely high demand from the dye, perfumery, and flavoring industries, it is one of the most expensive spices on earth. The components of the spice “saffron” are localized in the red stigmatic lobes of C. sativus flower and these are responsible for its distinct color, flavor, and smell. In this chapter the history of saffron, its economic importance, its pharmacological activities, cultivated area, production, as well as other uses are discussed. Further, we highlight the practices followed in saffron cultivation and discuss various issues connected with its production.

Medicinal Bryophytes Distributed in Turkey

Most of the people lack information on bryophytes due to their small size, and consequently less biomass. However, this group of plants has been used from the very ancient times, in packing, plugging, as well as decoration. The active constituents from bryophytes are widely used as antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxic, antitumor, and insecticidal agents as well as in medicinal and agricultural areas. This group of lower plants has been used in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, as well as hepatic and many other disorders in different parts of the world. In this chapter we have investigated their floristic, ecological, and ecophysiological behaviors together with the recent studies on their phytochemical and pharmacological investigations in Turkey. Our aim is to contribute towards the introduction of potential medicinal bryophytes from Turkey with some data from other parts of the world. Our investigations have revealed that there is a great need for an evaluation of plants from this group as there is a rich source in Turkey. This group of plants could be an alternative solution for the treatment of several present-time diseases.

Herbals in Iğdır (Turkey), Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan), and Tabriz (Iran)

Healing properties of plants are known to the humans since ancient times. The use of natural medicines is an important issue. Medicinal plants are used as medicinal herb juices, raw as salad, in brewing, baking, ointment, and so on. This chapter includes data on the medicinal and aromatic plants of Igdir (Turkey), Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan), and Tabriz (Iran), which have borders touching each other and have similar cultures. The main aim has been to analyze the distribution of the traditional medicinal plant knowledge in these three different sociolinguistic regions. The specific aims are to compare the composition and richness of medicinal ethnofloras and explore the factors that explain the variations. A total of 341 naturally distributed taxa belonging to 65 families are used in the traditional medicine in Igdir (Turkey), Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan), and Tabriz (Iran). These belong to the families Asteraceae (63 taxa), Lamiaceae (39 taxa), Apiaceae (24 taxa), Fabaceae (23 taxa), and Rosaceae (23 taxa). These five families constitute 50.44% of the medicinal and aromatic plant species (MAPS) distributed in three neighboring states. Most common taxa among these are Achillea millefolium L. and Cichorium intybus L. (Asteraceae), Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and Melilotus officinalis (L.) Desr. (Fabaceae), Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. subsp. orientalis (Uglitzkich) Browicz and Rosa canina L. (Rosaceae), Peganum harmala L. (Nitrariaceae), Plantago major L. (Plantaginaceae), and Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae). The parts commonly used are leaves (100 taxa), followed by the herb (98 taxa), fruit (57 taxa), and root (54 taxa). Common preparations evaluated are decoction (161 taxa), followed by infusion (72 taxa), fresh (54 taxa), and poultice (40 taxa). Locals in the three states generally use herbal remedies for the treatment of digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, gynecological, skeletal–muscular, ear, nose and throat, and urogenital disorders as well as in dermal, neurological, and psyschological diseases and mouth and tooth and other ailments. A comparison on the basis of MAPS reveals that in all three areas, four taxa are widely distributed and used almost for the same applications: Glycyrrhiza glabra (for digestive and respiratory systems), Malus sylvestris ssp. orientalis (for respiratory system), Rosa canina (for digestive and urogenital systems), and Urtica dioica (for digestive system). The three neighboring states belonging to three countries show several resemblances from cultural and other aspects. These areas seem to embody a great potential for evaluation of MAPS and interesting folk medicine culture.

An Alternative Potential Natural Genetic Resource: Sea Buckthorn [Elaeagnus rhamnoides (syn.: Hippophae rhamnoides)]

Elaeagnus rhamnoides (syn.: Hippophae rhamnoides), also known as sea buckthorn, is a member of the Elaeagnaceae family. Every part of the plant is used as medicine, nutritional supplement, fuel and fence, and therefore sea buckthorn is popularly known as ‘Gold Mine’, ‘Wonder Plant’ or ‘Golden Bush’. This plant contains a series of chemical compounds, possessing various biological as well as therapeutic activities including hepato-protective, antitumoural and immunumodulatory properties. The fruits of sea buckthorn have been used as a raw material for foods and medicines for decades in various regions of the world including China, Russia, North America and Europe. Berry products of sea buckthorn are nowadays becoming popular foods in the United States, Canada, Finland, Germany, and some other European countries. During the last decade sea buckthorn has attracted special attention and became an important subject for domestication in many countries as it is one of the most interesting plants for human use. However, the commercial cultivation and exploitation of sea buckthorn berries using its secondary compounds such as flavonoids, vitamins and carotenes for high quality food products or even to produce basic products such as juices is differently developed in Europe, Asia and Russia/NIS. Industrial cultivation, medicinal use, and processing of sea buckthorn berries need to be aligned according to different purposes, e.g. direct consumption, processing, juice or oil production, juice yield or composition of active compounds, seed oil or pulp oil, compounds to be enriched, etc. The medicinal and/or nutritional components of berries will provide very cheap raw material for national and international pharmaceutical industries, benefiting humanity worldwide. That’s why, sea buckthorn is one among the R&D subjects of the pharmaceutical industries all over the world. For this purpose, this chapter highlights the latest information about the sea buckthorn with an emphasis on its morphological features, taxonomic status, ecological and ecophysiological characteristics, biomorphological characteristics of some cultivars, phytochemical contents, traditional uses, potential medicinal characteristics, and other potential economical uses.

Potential Medicinal Plants Used in the Hypertension in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia

Currently, the world population is face to face with a rapid emergence of high blood pressure, which presents economic, as well as a serious current and long-term health problem. This chapter includes data on the medicinal and aromatic plants used in the treatment of hypertension in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia. The medicinal plants used in the treatment of hypertension include 132 taxa. These belong to 39 families and can be grouped under 92 genera in Turkey, 86 taxa from 41 families and 76 genera in Pakistan, and 61 taxa from 34 families and 53 genera in Malaysia. Allium sativum, Viscum album ssp. album, Urtica dioica, and Olea europaea are the commonly used taxa in Turkey; Allium sativum, Cannabis sativa, Ajuga integrifolia, Caralluma edulis, Taraxacum campylodes, Heliotropium strigosum, and Tribulus terrestris in Pakistan; and Andrographis paniculata, Centella asiatica, Eurycoma longifolia, Gynura procumbens, Solanum torvum, and Tetracera indica in Malaysia. The number of taxa used in common in Turkey and Pakistan is 10, only 3 are commonly used among Pakistan-Malaysia and 2 between Turkey and Malaysia. Allium sativum is the only taxon commonly used for the hypertension treatment in all three countries. The countries under consideration here seem to embody a great potential in the use of medicinal plants. They possess interesting folk medicine culture used in the treatment of hypertension. The medicinal and aromatic plants have been traditionally used by the people in these countries for hundreds of years. This review is expected to open new horizons in the treatment of hypertension in these countries.