Volker Heyd

Ancient DNA, Strontium isotopes, and osteological analyses shed light on social and kinship organization of the Later Stone Age

In 2005 four outstanding multiple burials were discovered near Eulau, Germany. The 4,600-year-old graves contained groups of adults and children buried facing each other. Skeletal and artifactual evidence and the simultaneous interment of the individuals suggest the supposed families fell victim to a violent event. In a multidisciplinary approach, archaeological, anthropological, geochemical (radiogenic isotopes), and molecular genetic (ancient DNA) methods were applied to these unique burials. Using autosomal, mitochondrial, and Y-chromosomal markers, we identified genetic kinship among the individuals. A direct child-parent relationship was detected in one burial, providing the oldest molecular genetic evidence of a nuclear family. Strontium isotope analyses point to different origins for males and children versus females. By this approach, we gain insight into a Late Stone Age society, which appears to have been exogamous and patrilocal, and in which genetic kinship seems to be a focal point of social organization.

Neolithic dairy farming at the extreme of agriculture in northern Europe

The conventional ‘Neolithic package’ comprised animals and plants originally domesticated in the Near East. As farming spread on a generally northwest trajectory across Europe, early pastoralists would have been faced with the challenge of making farming viable in regions in which the organisms were poorly adapted to providing optimal yields or even surviving. Hence, it has long been debated whether Neolithic economies were ever established at the modern limits of agriculture. Here, we examine food residues in pottery, testing a hypothesis that Neolithic farming was practiced beyond the 60th parallel north. Our findings, based on diagnostic biomarker lipids and δ13C values of preserved fatty acids, reveal a transition at ca 2500 BC from the exploitation of aquatic organisms to processing of ruminant products, specifically milk, confirming farming was practiced at high latitudes. Combining this with genetic, environmental and archaeological information, we demonstrate the origins of dairying probably accompanied an incoming, genetically distinct, population successfully establishing this new subsistence ‘package’.

Immigration and transhumance in the early Bronze Age Carpathian Basin: the occupants of a Kurgan

You never know until you look. The authors deconstruct a kurgan burial mound in the Great Hungarian Plain designated to the Yamnaya culture, to find it was actually shared by a number of different peoples. The Yamnaya were an influential immigrant group of the Late Copper Age/Early Bronze Age transition. The burials, already characterised by their grave goods, were radiocarbon dated and further examined using stable isotope analysis on the human teeth. The revealing sequence began with a young person of likely local origin buried around or even before the late fourth millennium BC—a few centuries before the arrival of the Yamnaya. It ended around 500 years later with a group of different immigrants, apparently from the eastern mountains. These are explained as contacts built up between the mountains and the plain through the practice of transhumance.

Event reconstruction through Bayesian chronology: Massive mid-Holocene lake-burst triggered large-scale ecological and cultural change

Precise timing of natural and cultural events provides a foundation for understanding how past natural phenomena have driven changes in population and culture. In this study, we used high-resolution Bayesian chronology to describe an event sequence of a massive and abrupt water level decline of a large lake and the contemporaneous cultural changes that occurred in eastern Fennoscandia during the mid-Holocene. The study provides the first transdisciplinary analysis of the causes and effects of the events by using a combination of archaeological, geological and ecological data. Nearly 6000 years ago, ancient Lake Saimaa, estimated to cover nearly 9000 km2at the time, was abruptly discharged through a new outlet. The event created thousands of square kilometres of new residual wetlands. The archaeological record shows a profound cultural replacement and a subsequent sharp human population maximum in the area during the decades after the decline in water level. During the population maximum, the proportion of Alces alces (moose) in the diet rapidly increased and became prominent as a dietary resource. The eventual population decline in the area coincided with ecological development towards old boreal conifer forests, along with the colonization of a new species of tree Picea abies (Norway spruce). The new ecosystem was less suitable for moose to forage in, and this attenuated the dietary role of moose and thus contributed towards the eventual population and cultural decline. The methodological approach described in this paper allowed the reconstruction of past natural and cultural events and demonstrated how they can be causally intertwined.

Kossinna's smile

Abstract Two recent palaeogenetic studies have identified a movement of Yamnaya peoples from the Eurasian steppe to Central Europe in the third millennium BC. Their findings are reminiscent of Gustaf Kossinnas equation of ethnic identification with archaeological culture. Rather than a single genetic transmission from Yamnaya to the Central European Corded Ware Culture, there is considerable evidence for centuries of connections and interactions across the continent, as far as Iberia. The author concludes that although genetics has much to offer archaeology, there is also much to be learned in the other direction. This article should be read in conjunction with that by Kristiansen et al. (2017), also in this issue.

High-resolution isotopic evidence of specialised cattle herding in the European Neolithic

Reconstructing stock herding strategies and land use is key to comprehending past human social organization and economy. We present laser-ablation strontium and carbon isotope data from 25 cattle (Bos taurus) to reconstruct mobility and infer herding management at the Swiss lakeside settlement of Arbon Bleiche 3, occupied for only 15 years (3384–3370 BC). Our results reveal three distinct isotopic patterns that likely reflect different herding strategies: 1) localized cattle herding, 2) seasonal movement, and 3) herding away from the site year-round. Different strategies of herding are not uniformly represented in various areas of the settlement, which indicates specialist modes of cattle management. The pressure on local fodder capacities and the need for alternative herding regimes must have involved diverse access to grazing resources. Consequently, the increasing importance of cattle in the local landscape was likely to have contributed to the progress of socio-economic differentiation in early agricultural societies in Europe.

Pit-Graves, Yamnaya and Kurgans along the Lower Danube: Disentangling IVth and IIIrd Millennium BC Burial Customs, Equipment and Chronology

Zusammenfassung: Die Autoren untersuchen im Beitrag Grubengräber unter Grabhügeln (Kurgane) von der gesamten Unteren Donau auf ihre Bestattungssitte, Grabausstattung, Stratigraphie und 14C Datierungen. Letztere beinhalten 17 neue 14C AMS Datierungen aus dem nördlichen Muntenien, von denen die meisten noch unpubliziert sind. Zwei klare Bestattungsgruppen können unterschieden werden: Eine erste besteht aus Gräbern mit mehr ovaler als rechteckiger Grabgrube, vorherrschender Körperposition der Verstorbenen als Seitenhocker, nur wenig Ocker sowie zwar selten mitgegebene aber scheinbar lokale Keramikgefässe. Gräber dieser Gruppe sind zumeist die Primärgräber in ihren Hügeln. Bringt man bereits publizierte mit unseren neuen 14C Datierungen aus den Gräbern 3B und 5B von Aricești IV (und teilweise das Grab 2/3 von Păuleşti II), alle jud. Prahova, zusammen, können wir belegen, dass diese Gruppe vor ca. 3050/3000 (kalibriert) v. Chr. datiert, wahrscheinlich das gesamte letzte Drittel des 4. Jahrtausends v. Chr. abdeckend. Die zweite Gruppe repräsentiert alle Charakteristika des klassischen ‘Yamnaya’, d. h. Primär- und Sekundärgräber, vorherrschend rechteckige Grabgruben abgedeckt mit hölzernen Balken, Rückenhocker-Bestattungen mit angezogenen Beinen, Ockerflecken und/oder Ockerklumpen und eine geringe Ausstattungsneigung bei der, wenn überhaupt, nur gelegentliche Edelmetall-Haarringe herausragen. Keramikgefäße sind weiterhin selten; sind solche jedoch mitgegeben, dann finden sich mitunter schnurverzierte Becher die den typischen Bechern der Schnurkeramik Mittel- und Nordeuropas stark ähneln. Gräber dieser Gruppe haben typischerweise 14C Datierungen nach ca. 3050/3000 v. Chr. Ferner ergibt sich die vorsichtige Möglichkeit, sie weiter entlang den flachen und steilen Bereichen der Kalibrierungskurve zu unterteilen, d. h. zunächst von ca. 3050/3000 bis 2880 v. Chr. und dann von 2880 bis 2580 v. Chr. Das eröffnet vielleicht die Aussicht, später ein frühes und ein spätes ‘Yamnaya’ westlich des Schwarzen Meeres zu definieren. Insgesamt, und nach der Beurteilung von mehr als 500 14C und/oder dendrochronologischen Datierungen zwischen Ural und Theiss, gehört das Grubengrab-Kulturphänomen in die Zeit zwischen ca. 3500 und 2400 v. Chr. Nimmt man auch die davor liegenden Gräber des Suvorovo-Novodanilovka (5. Jahrtausend v. Chr.) hinzu, sowie einige Kurgan/Steppengräber, die dem Cernavoda I und Verwandtem (1. Hälfte des 4. Jahrtausends v. Chr.) zugewiesen werden, dann wird ein 2000 Jahre dauerndes Austauschkontinuum zwischen den nordost-, nord- und westpontischen Räumen ersichtlich. Während wir für ‘Yamnaya’ eine intensive Migrationswelle von Menschen aus dem Osten in einer neuartigen sozio-ökonomisch-ideologischen Umgebung annehmen, ist abzuwarten ob auch die frühesten Grubengräber unter Kurganen an der unteren Donau ab ca. 3300 v. Chr. von Steppenleuten, verwandt den nordponischen Nizhne-Mikhailovka und Kvityana Bestattungstraditionen, getragen werden. Möglich sind aber auch lokale Populationen, die diese neuen östlichen Bestattungssitten in ihr eigenes Ritual übernehmen. Vielleicht ist gar eine Kombination von beiden das wahrscheinlichste Szenario. Résumé: Les sépultures à fosses ou à puits sous tumulus (kourgane) de la culture Yamna dans la vallée inférieure du Danube font l’objet de notre article. Nous nous penchons sur les questions concernant les rites funéraires, le mobilier des sépultures, la stratigraphie et les datations radiocarbone. Ces dernières comprennent 17 dates AMS récemment obtenues en Munténie du nord, la plupart inédites. On peut distinguer deux groups de sépultures. Un premier groupe consiste en sépultures à fosses plus ovales que rectangulaires; les corps sont fléchis sur le côté, il y a peu d’ocre et les récipients (en céramique de production apparemment locale) sont rares. Les sépultures de ce groupe sont pour la plupart les sépultures primaires à l’intérieur des tumuli. En utilisant des datations radiocarbone obtenues récemment pour les sépultures 3B et 5 B à Ariceşti IV (et en partie celles de la sépulture 2/3 de Păuleşti II), comté Prahova, nous démontrons que the groupe date d’avant environ 3050/3000 cal BC, probablement recouvrant tout le dernier tiers du IVe millénaire BC. Le second groupe présente toutes les caractéristiques de la culture classique ‘Yamna’: sépultures primaires et secondaires, fosses surtout rectangulaires et couvertes de poutres, corps en décubitus avec jambes fléchies, taches ou morceaux d’ocre, mobilier rare où on remarque quelques anneaux de chevelure en métal précieux. La céramique est à nouveau rare, mais quand elle est présente il s’agit souvent de gobelets décorés au cordon, très semblables aux gobelets de la culture de la céramique cordée de l’Europe du centre et du nord. Les datations radiocarbone de ces sépultures de ce groupe datent d’après environ 3050/3000 cal BC, et il est peut-être même possible de les subdiviser le long des parties plates et raides de la courbe de calibration, c’est-à-dire allant d’environ 3050/3000 à 2880 cal BC, et ensuite depuis environ 2880 à 2580 cal BC. Ceci pourra en fin de compte nous permettre de distinguer uns phase ‘Yamna’ ancienne d’une phase plus récente. En bref, et après avoir examiné plus de 500 datations radiocarbone et/ou dendrochronologiques provenant d’une zone allant de l’Oural à la Tisza, le phénomène des sépultures à puits ou fosses couvre une période allant d’environ 3500 cal BC à 2400 cal BC. En incluant les sépultures plus anciennes de Suvorovo-Novodanilovka (Ve millénaire BC.) et certaines sépultures (ou kourganes) de la culture des steppes attribuées à Cernavoda I et cultures associées (première moitié du IVe millénaire BC), il devient évident qu’un courant d’échange existait de façon continue durant 2000 ans entre le nord-est, le nord et l’ouest du Pont-Euxin. Quoique nous supposons que la culture ‘Yamna’ a surtout vu une vague intense de migrants venants de l’est au sein d’un milieu social, économique et idéologique nouveau, il reste à établir si les premières sépultures à fosses sous tumulus du Danube inférieur datant d’à partir de 3300 cal BC étaient un apport de peuples des steppes apparentés à des peuplades du nord du Pont-Euxin avec traditions funéraires de type Nizhne-Mikhailovka et Kvityana, ou s’il s’agit plutôt de rites appartenant à une population locale qui aurait intégré de nouvelles coutumes ‘orientales’ dans ses propres rites funéraires. Il est fort probable que nous avons affaire à une combinaison des deux possibilités. Abstract: The Pit-Graves under burial mounds (Kurgans) of the Lower Danube region are being assessed in terms of their burial customs, funeral equipment, stratigraphy and radiocarbon dates. The latter comprise 17 recently performed AMS dates from Northern Muntenia, most of them yet unpublished. Two distinct burial groups can be separated: A first consists of graves with more oval than rectangular grave-pits, predominantly side-crouched body positions of the deceased, few ochre, and rare but seemingly local pots. Graves of this group are mostly the primary graves in their mounds. By using some already published and the newly obtained 14C dates from the graves 3B and 5B of Ariceşti IV (and partly grave 2/3 of Păuleşti II), all Prahova District, we demonstrate this group to date to before c. 3050/3000 cal BC, probably covering the whole last third of the IVth millennium BC. The second group presents all characteristics of the classical ’Yamnaya’, i.e. primary and secondary graves, predominantly rectangular grave-pits covered by wooden beams, and supine body positions with flexed legs, ochre patches and/or lumps, and sparse equipment of those occasional precious-metal hair rings stand out. Pottery is again rare; but when vessels are given they often represent cord-decorated beakers, resembling very much the typical Corded Ware beakers of Central and Northern Europe. Graves of this group have normally 14C dates after c. 3050/3000 cal BC with a tentative possibility to further divide them along the flat and steep parts of the calibration curve, i.e. firstly from c. 3050/3000 to 2880 cal BC and then from c. 2880 to 2580 cal BC. This perhaps opens the possibility to eventually define an earlier and later ’Yamnaya’. Overall, and after examining more than 500 radiocarbon and/ or dendrochronological dates from the Ural to the Tisza river, the pit-grave cultural phenomenon ranges from c. 3500 to 2400 cal BC. By including the preceding Suvorovo-Novodanilovka graves (Vth mill. BC) and some Kurgan/steppe burials attributed to Cernavoda I and its relatives (1st half of IVth mill. BC), a 2,000 years lasting continuum of exchange between the northeast, north and west-Pontic regions becomes evident. While we assume the ‘Yamnaya’ being mostly covered by an intense wave of migrant people from the east, in a novel socio-economic-ideological athmosphere, it remains to be seen whether the first Pit-Graves under Kurgans at the Lower Danube from c. 3300 cal BC are also carried by steppe people related to those using the north-Pontic Nizhne-Mikhailovka and Kvityana burial traditions, or by local populations integrating new ‘eastern’ burial customs into their own rituals. Perhaps a combination of both is the most likely scenario.

The Beginnings of Alpine Transhumance? Isotopic Insights into Neolithic Cattle Herding

*Correspondence: Dr. C. Gerling, E-mail: claudia.gerling@unibas.ch. aDepartment of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Spalenring 145, CH-4055 Basel; bDepartment of Archaeology, University of Southampton, Avenue Campus, Highfield Road, Southampton SO17 1BF, UK; cCurt-Engelhorn Centre Archaeometry, D6,3, D-68159 Mannheim; dDepartment of Archaeology & Anthropology, University of Bristol, 43 Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1UU, UK; eDepartment of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Bernoullistrasse 30, CH-4056 Basel

Precision farming and archaeology

With a significant growth in the agricultural technology industry, a vast amount of agricultural data is now being collected on farms throughout the world. Farmers aim to utilise these technologies to regularly record and manage the variation of crops and soils within their fields, to reduce inputs, increase yields and enhance environmental sustainability. In this paper, we aim to highlight the variety of different data types and methodological processes involved in modern precision farming systems and explore how potentially interconnected these systems are with the archaeological community. At present, no research has studied the effects of archaeological sites on soils in the context of precision farming practices. Yet from modern geophysical, geochemical and remote sensing techniques, a much greater volume of soil- and crop-related mapping is being undertaken, with huge potential for all kinds of archaeological study. From heritage management to archaeological prospection, how will the future of archaeological studies fit into this changing agricultural landscape?