W. Joel Schneider

The association between high status positions and aggressive behavior in early adolescence.

The present study examined the association between high status social positions in early adolescence and both overt and relational aggression. A sample of 234 sixth graders (132 girls, 102 boys) completed peer nominations assessing aggression, social centrality, and coolness. Data analyses were based on all sixth graders who received peer nominations, for a total sample size of 417 students (224 girls, 193 boys). Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine both within-peer group differences and between-peer group differences. Results indicated relational aggression was related to higher overall social centrality and being nominated as cool even when controlling for overt aggression. Overt aggression appeared to be related to higher overall social centrality and being nominated as cool, but this relationship was much weaker when relational aggression was controlled. Although girls used relational aggression more often and boys used overt aggression more often, the use of relational aggression by either gender was related to membership in high status peer groups and high status within the peer group. Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

What If We Took Our Models Seriously? Estimating Latent Scores in Individuals

Researchers often argue that the structural models of the constructs they study are relevant to clinicians. Unfortunately, few clinicians are able to translate the mathematically precise relationships between latent constructs and observed scores into information that can be usefully applied to individuals. Typically this means that when a new structural model supplants a rival model, clinicians have only vague (and often incorrect) notions about how score interpretations should change. Fortunately, it is possible to estimate latent scores from observed scores in a rigorous manner. More important, paying attention to the confidence intervals around those estimates can assist clinicians’ intuitions about what can (and cannot) be known with precision about a person’s abilities. These methods are illustrated with structural models of the WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition). A free user-friendly spreadsheet that automates these procedures is available from the author.

Preservice teacher attitudes toward gay and lesbian parents.

Gay and lesbian parents are raising an increasing number of children, but little is known about how these parents are viewed by school personnel. In this study, preservice teacher attitudes toward gay and lesbian parents were assessed using implicit, explicit, behavioral, and behavioroid measures. Implicit measures indicate that participants rated same-gender targets more negatively than they rated heterosexual targets, and they rated targets of gay men more negatively than they rated lesbians; however, response patterns varied by participant sex. Furthermore, implicit measures of sexual prejudice generally correlated with explicit and behavioroid measures. The implications of these findings are discussed.

It's the Destination and It's the Journey: Using Multilevel Modeling to Assess Patterns of Change in Psychotherapy

BACKGROUND The pairing of analysis of variance (ANOVA)-based analyses with designs lacking multiple measurement of client change may lead to conclusions that are inconsistent with theoretical expectations about how change will occur. Multilevel modeling (MLM), when used with multiple assessments of client outcomes, provides a flexible set of tools to analyze trajectories of client change. PURPOSE The authors present an overview of MLM and growth curve analysis as applied to psychotherapy outcome. Results from a simulated data set illustrate how MLM-specifically, growth curve analysis-can be used to test hypotheses from randomized clinical trials. RESULTS Growth curve analyses were applied to simulated data from an experimental design (treatment versus control group) with multiple assessments of client distress and a client individual difference variable. Results of growth curve analyses confirmed what was found with a pretreatment/posttreatment repeated-measures ANOVA but provided additional information not available from the ANOVA framework. CONCLUSIONS Given its flexibility, MLM is the recommended method to assess patterns of change in studies of psychotherapy outcome.

Estimating Base Rates of Impairment in Neuropsychological Test Batteries: A Comparison of Quantitative Models

Neuropsychologists frequently rely on a battery of neuropsychological tests which are normally distributed to determine impaired functioning. The statistical likelihood of Type I error in clinical decision-making is in part determined by the base rate of normative individuals obtaining atypical performance on neuropsychological tests. Base rates are most accurately obtained by co-normed measures, but this is rarely accomplished in neuropsychological testing. Several statistical methods have been proposed to estimate base rates for tests that are not co-normed. This study compared two statistical approaches (binomial and Monte Carlo models) used to estimate the base rates for flexible test batteries. The two approaches were compared against empirically derived base rates for a multitest co-normed battery of cognitive measures. Estimates were compared across a variety of conditions including age and different α levels (N =3,356). Monte Carlo R(2) estimates ranged from .980 to .997 across five different age groups, indicating a good fit. In contrast, the binomial model fit estimates ranged from 0.387 to 0.646. Results confirm that the binomial model is insufficient for estimating base rates because it does not take into account correlations among measures in a multitest battery. Although the Monte Carlo model produced more accurate results, minor biases occurred that are likely due to skewess and kurtosis of test variables. Implications for future research and applied practice are discussed.

The Relationship Between Theories of Intelligence and Intelligence Tests

The history of the use of intelligence tests has been summarized as a series of overlapping waves of new ideas and practices. In Wave 1 (1904 to present), intelligence tests were primarily used to measure general intelligence. In Wave 2 (1940s to present), practitioners were encouraged to generate nuanced hypotheses about individuals based on highly specific aspects of test performance. In Wave 3 (1970s to present), greater psychometric rigor was applied to the interpretation of individual profiles. In Wave 4 (1980s to present), test publishers began to operationalize well-developed theories of cognitive ability, giving practitioners greater confidence in their interpretations. We review how thoughtfully applying ideas and techniques from each approach can enhance current practice.

Cross-Battery Assessment? XBA PSW? A case of mistaken identity: A commentary on Kranzler and colleagues' “Classification agreement analysis of Cross-Battery Assessment in the identification of specific learning disorders in children and youth”

Cross-Battery Assessment? XBA PSW? A case of mistaken identity: A commentary on Kranzler and colleagues’ “Classification agreement analysis of Cross-Battery Assessment in the identification of specific learning disorders in children and youth” Dawn P. Flanagan and W. Joel Schneider Department of Psychology, St. John’s University, Queens, New York, USA; Department of Psychology, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois, USA

Let's Not Do Away with Comprehensive Cognitive Assessments Just Yet

We review rational and empirical reasons that comprehensive cognitive assessments are useful sources of information in the evaluation and treatment of learning disabilities. However, the existing evidence base that demonstrates the value of comprehensive cognitive assessments for this purpose is not nearly as strong as it needs to be. Proponents of comprehensive cognitive assessments for learning disability identification must do more to rigorously evaluate their beliefs or else concede the argument to those with better evidence.

Fine-Tuning Cross-Battery Assessment Procedures: After Follow-Up Testing, Use All Valid Scores, Cohesive or Not:

We used data simulations to test whether composites consisting of cohesive subtest scores are more accurate than composites consisting of divergent subtest scores. We demonstrate that when multivariate normality holds, divergent and cohesive scores are equally accurate. Furthermore, excluding divergent scores results in biased estimates of construct scores. We show that obtaining divergent scores should prompt additional testing under some conditions. Although there are many valid reasons to exclude scores from consideration (e.g., malingering, fatigue, and misunderstood directions), no score should be removed from a composite simply because it is different from other scores in the composite.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Woodcock–Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities: Best Practice from a Scientist–Practitioner Perspective

Abstract To use a sophisticated instrument like the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities, one’s understanding of assessment principles must be equally sophisticated. To make full use of the WJ-IV’s impressive features, examiners must have a well-articulated understanding of the theory that underlies the WJ IV and also of the limitations inherent in the instrument. The practical features of each test in the WJ IV are reviewed, considering each test’s strengths and weaknesses.