W Wim Zeiler

Personal heating: effectiveness and energy use

Buildings use approximately 40% of primary energy with most energy expended on the provision of a comfortable indoor climate. An extended range of indoor temperatures can significantly reduce the energy load. However, lower temperature set points for heating can cause thermal discomfort. Giving building occupants the option to warm themselves (e.g. a local source at their desk or workstation) can mitigate this discomfort by the provision of a personalized conditioning system. A model is presented to assess the performance of personalized heating and its impact on the whole building energy load. Researchers, designers and facility managers can use this model to compare performance and analyse energy savings. The total energy use of personalized heating is estimated by scaling its settings to the actual level of discomfort resulting from a lowered heating set point. This model is used to assess seven different personalized heating systems. Assessments reveal that personalized heating brings a remarkable energy-saving potential, while maintaining or even improving individually perceived thermal comfort. Assessments are based on an assumed linear relation between the power and level of increased thermal sensation. Future research in personalized conditioning systems should be directed towards the development of the full characteristics and specific settings.

Optimizing the energy exchange between the Smart Grid and Building Systems

Various Smart Grid (SG) technologies and concepts are currently under investigation, driven by the goals of energy transition policies towards future sustainable, reliable and affordable electricity supply systems. This paper presents an approach for modeling the interaction between the Smart Grid and Building Energy Management Systems (SG-BEMS), using Multi Agent Systems control. The interaction consists of three layers: the smart building, the neighborhood, and the distribution grid. It enables the continuous bidirectional flow of energy and information between SG and BEMS. The proposed framework combines optimization techniques inspired by dynamic game theory and stochastic optimization algorithms. The goal of the optimization is to increase the overall performance, while keeping a good level of comfort for people in the built environment.

Toward cost-effective nearly zero energy buildings: The Dutch Situation

To reduce the high energy demand and pollution of greenhouse gasses of the built environment, the Energy Performance of Building Directive came in 2010 with plans for the European Union member states. Buildings must be, according the plan, nearly zero energy and should reach this goal by implementing cost-effective (passive-) measures for a high energy performance and application of sustainable energy source(s) for the remaining demand. In this research, a study is done on recently completed Dutch sustainable and nearly zero energy buildings, from which can be concluded that the goal from the Energy Performance of Building Directive now is rarely met. Most buildings use aquifer thermal storage system with a heat pump and thermal activated building systems. However, to really meet the nearly zero energy and low CO2 emissions goal, in 2019 for public buildings and 2021 for all buildings, more focus is needed from the design teams in the early design phase toward cost-effective solutions. Life cycle costs are an important decision driver for achieving a cost-effective, nearly zero energy building. A new method, which incorporates additional benefits as productivity increase, sick leave reductions, Public Relations, and higher renting value, reveals that then an “economic optimal nearly zero energy building” can be met easier in the near future.

Integral Design Methodology Within Industrial Collaboration

Sustainable building will be the major guiding principle for renewal of building and spatial planning practice. Kropman being one of the major Dutch building services contractors is aware of this trend. It is because of this rowing awareness of sustainability that the company puts effort towards knowledge transfer and research with the Dutch knowledge and research institutes. The principles of sustainable building within the IFD (Industrial Flexible Dismountable) concept are applied in the planning of a new building for the Kropman Utrecht department. Aim was an integrated approach within the design process to reach a maximum level of integration between building elements and climate conditioning elements. A newly developed methodology for structuring and documenting integral design processes enables verification and reproduction of decisions made during designing. Its conscious use by professionals results in iteration cycles within and between their own domains. The gradual emergence of a design language that helps structuring design tasks and solutions further stimulates the multidisciplinary exchange of ideas and concepts. This approach of structuring tasks and solutions is tested within a professional context of a building design project. Investigated is if the approach improves and supports the building design process. Besides its added value for building design process, the integral design methodology directly stimulates application of sustainable energy in the built environment.Copyright

The potential and possible effects of power grid support activities on buildings: An analysis of experimental results for ventilation system

This paper reports on the potential and possible effects of using building services installations (notably ventilation systems) to support power grids. This is significant taken that the shift towards smart grids comes with adoption of demand side integration and the concept of active controllable loads. However, it is recommended that demand side resource will be used for grid support activities only if non-disruption in terms of indoor comfort and their responsiveness can be guaranteed. Relevant studies mainly report grid perspective in event of using demand side resources to support the power grid. The result is that little emphasis is given to indoor comfort, building behavior and the exact details of achieving controllability at building level in such events. Using experimental data from an office building in the Netherlands this paper reports on indoor comfort and building behavior in the event of committing installed ventilation systems to provide power grid support services. Possibilities for attaining controllability and responsiveness for the components in such systems are also presented. The study is case specific and contributes to the development of possible operational guidelines for building ventilation systems in event of using them for grid support activities.

On the use of electrical humidifiers in office buildings as a demand side resource

Abstract A key characteristic of the smart grid is its multi-directional flow of power and information and hence transformation of the demand side management to demand side integration philosophy at low level voltage. This implies that building must also provide service to the electrical smart grid in as much as it is also serviced by the later. Consequently the phenomenon of active loads have become evident in form of using μCHP, E-vehicles and heat pumps amongst others to service the utility grid. Taking cue from tests performed in the United States and the United Kingdom, an experiment was conducted at an existing building in Breda, Netherlands to investigate potential and possible effects on recommended comfort levels if the electrical steam humidifier were to be used to as an active load. Specifically the steam humidifier was operated on modulated mode and reduced capacity; corresponding comfort conditions and occupancy monitored. Results indicated that whereas potentials existed for such uses, care had to be taken to determine critical operational boundaries of the equipment. Further tests were recommended to establish the level of responsiveness and verify a control strategy if the steam humidifier were to be used as an active load.

Are building users prepared for energy flexible buildings—A large-scale survey in the Netherlands

Building energy flexibility might play a crucial role in demand side management for integrating intermittent renewables into smart grids. The potential of building energy flexibility depends not only on the physical characteristics of a building but also on occupant behaviour in the building. Building users will have to adopt smart technologies and to change their daily energy use behaviours or routines, if energy flexibility is to be achieved. The willingness of users to make changes will determine how much demand flexibility can be achieved in buildings and whether energy flexible buildings can be realized. This will have a considerable impact on the transition to smart grids. This study is thus to assess the perception of smart grids and energy flexible buildings by building users, and their readiness for them on a large scale. We attempted to identify the key characteristics of the ideal user of flexible buildings. A questionnaire was designed and administered as an online survey in the Netherlands. The questionnaire consisted of questions about the sociodemographic characteristics of the current users, house type, household composition, current energy use behaviour, willingness to use smart technologies, and willingness to change energy use behaviour. The survey was completed by 835 respondents, of which 785 (94%) were considered to have provided a genuine response. Our analysis showed that the concept of smart grids is an unfamiliar one, as more than 60% of the respondents had never heard of smart grids. However, unfamiliarity with smart grids increased with age, and half of the respondents aged 20–29years old were aware of the concept. Monetary incentives were identified as the biggest motivating factor for adoption of smart grid technologies. It was also found that people would be most in favour of acquiring smart dishwashers (65% of the respondents) and refrigerator/freezers (60%). Statistical analysis shows that people who are willing to use smart technologies are also willing to change their behaviour, and can thus be categorised as potentially flexible building users. Given certain assumptions, 11% of the respondents were found to be potentially flexible building users. To encourage people to be prepared for energy flexible buildings, awareness of smart grids will have to be increased, and the adoption of smart technologies may have to be promoted by providing incentives such as financial rewards.

Smart Grid - BEMS: The Art of Optimizing the Connection between Comfort Demand and Energy Supply

Comfort demands are increasing while at the same there is a need for energy reduction and the use of renewable energy sources within Smart Grids. Functionality of Buildings Energy Management Systems (BEMS) need re-evaluation in the context of smart grid environment. In particular, their inability for real time feedback and a rather static mode of operations requires attention in the light of smart grid operations. By using a multi agent system in combination with traditional BEMS, a layered process control system at building level that conceptualises energy demand interactively with the smart grid supply infrastructure and the environment is possible. Practical contribution is improved energy management by balancing energy demand and energy supply. The paper discusses optimisation of BEMS operations for energy efficiency and indoor human comfort using multi-agents system (MAS) technology in the Smart Grid environment. A conceptual framework for improving the effectiveness BEMS in the realm of smart grids operation and distributed generation using MAS is presented .

Modelling hand skin temperature in relation to body composition

Skin temperature is a challenging parameter to predict due to the complex interaction of physical and physiological variations. Previous studies concerning the correlation of regional physiological characteristics and body composition showed that obese people have higher hand skin temperature compared to the normal weight people. To predict hand skin temperature in a different environment, a two-node hand thermophysiological model was developed and validated with published experimental data. In addition, a sensitivity analysis was performed which showed that the variations in skin blood flow and blood temperature are most influential on hand skin temperature. The hand model was applied to simulate the hand skin temperature of the obese and normal weight subgroup in different ambient conditions. Higher skin blood flow and blood temperature were used in the simulation of obese people. The results showed a good agreement with experimental data from the literature, with the maximum difference of 0.31°C. If the difference between blood flow and blood temperature of obese and normal weight people was not taken into account, the hand skin temperature of obese people was predicted with an average deviation of 1.42°C. In conclusion, when modelling hand skin temperatures, it should be considered that regional skin temperature distribution differs in obese and normal weight people.

User interaction patterns of a personal cooling system: A measurement study

Personal cooling systems provide cooling for individual office occupants to maintain thermal comfort at their workplace when cooling is needed. The indoor temperature of the office can be maintained at several degrees higher than is customary in offices today when personal cooling is available, which results in energy saving for office buildings as a whole. To better understand the individual cooling demand of building occupants and develop good control strategies for personal cooling systems, it is necessary to assess the interaction between the user and the personal cooling system. For this purpose, a personal cooling system was tested in a stable, slightly warm environment (27.5°C) in a climate chamber with 11 human subjects. The personal cooling system was controlled by the subject using a simple slider. The interaction of the user with the system was related to comfort level and perceived air quality. The subjects are categorized into groups based on gender, on comfort level, and on whether their comfort improved during the test or not. The results show that comfort level did not directly reflect in a difference in the number of interactions or level of the setting. The largest difference in setting was found between male and female subjects, where females required less cooling.