Waldo Hinshaw

The feasibility of an inverse geometry CT system with stationary source arrays.

PURPOSE Inverse geometry computed tomography (IGCT) has been proposed as a new system architecture that combines a small detector with a large, distributed source. This geometry can suppress cone-beam artifacts, reduce scatter, and increase dose efficiency. However, the temporal resolution of IGCT is still limited by the gantry rotation time. Large reductions in rotation time are in turn difficult due to the large source array and associated power electronics. We examine the feasibility of using stationary source arrays for IGCT in order to achieve better temporal resolution. We anticipate that multiple source arrays are necessary, with each source array physically separated from adjacent ones. METHODS Key feasibility issues include spatial resolution, artifacts, flux, noise, collimation, and system timing clashes. The separation between the different source arrays leads to missing views, complicating reconstruction. For the special case of three source arrays, a two-stage reconstruction algorithm is used to estimate the missing views. Collimation is achieved using a rotating collimator with a small number of holes. A set of equally spaced source spots are designated on the source arrays, and a source spot is energized when a collimator hole is aligned with it. System timing clashes occur when multiple source spots are scheduled to be energized simultaneously. We examine flux considerations to evaluate whether sufficient flux is available for clinical applications. RESULTS The two-stage reconstruction algorithm suppresses cone-beam artifacts while maintaining resolution and noise characteristics comparable to standard third generation systems. The residual artifacts are much smaller in magnitude than the cone-beam artifacts eliminated. A mathematical condition is given relating collimator hole locations and the number of virtual source spots for which system timing clashes are avoided. With optimization, sufficient flux may be achieved for many clinical applications. CONCLUSIONS IGCT with stationary source arrays could be an imaging platform potentially capable of imaging a complete 16-cm thick volume within a tenth of a second.

Empirical Cupping Correction for CT Scanners with Primary Modulation (ECCP)

X-ray CT measures the attenuation of polychromatic x-rays through an object. The rawdata acquired, which are the negative logarithm of the relative x-ray intensity behind the patient, must undergo water precorrection to linearize the measurement and to convert them into line integrals that are ready for reconstruction. The function to linearize the measured projection data depends on the detected spectrum of the ray. This spectrum may vary as a function of the detector position, e.g. in cases where the heel effect becomes relevant, or where a bow-tie filter introduces channel-dependent beam hardening, or in cases where a primary modulator is used to modulate the primary intensity of the spectrum. We propose a new approach that allows to handle these effects. Our empirical cupping correction for primary modulation (ECCP) corrects for artifacts, such as cupping artifacts or ring artifacts, that are induced by non-linearities in the projection data due to spatially varying pre- or post filtration of the x-rays. To do so, ECCP requires nothing but a simple scan of a homogeneous phantom of nearly arbitrary shape. Based on this information, coefficients of a polynomial series are calculated and stored for later use. Numerical examples and physical measurements are shown to demonstrate the quality of the precorrection. ECCP achieves to remove the cupping artifacts and to obtain well-calibrated CT-values even in cases of strong primary modulation. A combination of ECCP with analytical techniques yielding a hybrid cupping correction method is possible and allows for channel-dependent correction functions.

Kinect-Based Correction of Overexposure Artifacts in Knee Imaging with C-Arm CT Systems

Objective. To demonstrate a novel approach of compensating overexposure artifacts in CT scans of the knees without attaching any supporting appliances to the patient. C-Arm CT systems offer the opportunity to perform weight-bearing knee scans on standing patients to diagnose diseases like osteoarthritis. However, one serious issue is overexposure of the detector in regions close to the patella, which can not be tackled with common techniques. Methods. A Kinect camera is used to algorithmically remove overexposure artifacts close to the knee surface. Overexposed near-surface knee regions are corrected by extrapolating the absorption values from more reliable projection data. To achieve this, we develop a cross-calibration procedure to transform surface points from the Kinect to CT voxel coordinates. Results. Artifacts at both knee phantoms are reduced significantly in the reconstructed data and a major part of the truncated regions is restored. Conclusion. The results emphasize the feasibility of the proposed approach. The accuracy of the cross-calibration procedure can be increased to further improve correction results. Significance. The correction method can be extended to a multi-Kinect setup for use in real-world scenarios. Using depth cameras does not require prior scans and offers the possibility of a temporally synchronized correction of overexposure artifacts. To achieve this, we develop a cross-calibration procedure to transform surface points from the Kinect to CT voxel coordinates.

Design optimization of MR-compatible rotating anode x-ray tubes for stable operation.

PURPOSE Hybrid x-ray/MR systems can enhance the diagnosis and treatment of endovascular, cardiac, and neurologic disorders by using the complementary advantages of both modalities for image guidance during interventional procedures. Conventional rotating anode x-ray tubes fail near an MR imaging system, since MR fringe fields create eddy currents in the metal rotor which cause a reduction in the rotation speed of the x-ray tube motor. A new x-ray tube motor prototype has been designed and built to be operated close to a magnet. To ensure the stability and safety of the motor operation, dynamic characteristics must be analyzed to identify possible modes of mechanical failure. In this study a 3D finite element method (FEM) model was developed in order to explore possible modifications, and to optimize the motor design. The FEM provides a valuable tool that permits testing and evaluation using numerical simulation instead of building multiple prototypes. METHODS Two experimental approaches were used to measure resonance characteristics: the first obtained the angular speed curves of the x-ray tube motor employing an angle encoder; the second measured the power spectrum using a spectrum analyzer, in which the large amplitude of peaks indicates large vibrations. An estimate of the bearing stiffness is required to generate an accurate FEM model of motor operation. This stiffness depends on both the bearing geometry and adjacent structures (e.g., the number of balls, clearances, preload, etc.) in an assembly, and is therefore unknown. This parameter was set by matching the FEM results to measurements carried out with the anode attached to the motor, and verified by comparing FEM predictions and measurements with the anode removed. The validated FEM model was then used to sweep through design parameters [bearing stiffness (1 × 10(5)-5 × 10(7) N/m), shaft diameter (0.372-0.625 in.), rotor diameter (2.4-2.9 in.), and total length of motor (5.66-7.36 in.)] to increase the fundamental frequency past the operating range at 50 Hz. RESULTS The first large vibration during the prototype motor operation was obtained at 21.64 ± 0.68 Hz in the power spectrum. An abrupt decrease in acceleration occurred at 21.5 Hz due to struggling against the resonance vibrations. A bearing stiffness of 1.2 × 10(5) N/m in the FEM simulation was used to obtain a critical speed of 21.4 Hz providing 1.1% error. This bearing stiffness value and the 3D model were then confirmed by the experiments with the anode removed, demonstrating an agreement within 6.4% between simulation results and measurements. A calculated first critical frequency (fundamental frequency) of 68.5 Hz was obtained by increasing the bearing stiffness to 1 × 10(7) N/m and increasing the shaft diameter by 68.0%. Reducing the number of bearings in the design permits decreasing the total length of the motor by 1.7 in., and results in a fundamental frequency of 68.3 Hz in concert with additional changes (shaft diameter of 0.625 in., rotor diameter of 2.4 in., and bearing stiffness of 1 × 10(6) N/m). CONCLUSIONS An FEM model of the x-ray tube motor has been implemented and experimentally validated. A fundamental frequency above the operational rotation speed can be achieved through modification of multiple design parameters, which allows the motor to operate stably and safely in the MR environment during the repeated acceleration/deceleration cycles required for an interventional procedure. The validated 3D FEM model can now be used to investigate trade-offs between generated torque, maximum speed, and motor inertia to further optimize motor design.

An inverse geometry CT system with stationary source arrays

Traditional CT systems face a tradeoff between temporal resolution, volumetric coverage and cone beam artifacts and also have limited ability to customize the distribution of incident x-rays to the imaging task. Inverse geometry CT (IGCT) can overcome some of these limitations by placing a small detector opposite a large, rotating scanned source array. It is difficult to quickly rotate this source array to achieve rapid imaging, so we propose using stationary source arrays instead and investigate the feasibility of such a system. We anticipate that distinct source arrays will need to be physically separated, creating gaps in the sinogram. Symmetry can be used to fill the missing rays except those connecting gaps. With three source arrays, a large triangular field of view emerges. As the small detector orbits the patient, each source spot must be energized at multiple specifically designed times to ensure adequate sampling. A timing scheme is proposed that avoids timing clashes, efficiently uses the detector, and allows for simple collimation. The two-dimensional MTF, noise characteristics, and artifact levels are all found to be comparable to parallel-beam systems. A complete, 100 millisecond volumetric scan may be feasible.

On filtration for high-energy phase-contrast x-ray imaging

Phase-sensitive x-ray imaging promises unprecedented soft-tissue contrast and resolution. However, several practical challenges have to be overcome when using the setup in a clinical environment. The system design that is currently closest to clinical use is the grating-based Talbot-Lau interferometer (GBI).1-3 The requirements for patient imaging are low patient dose, fast imaging time, and high image quality. For GBI, these requirements can be met most successfully with a narrow energy width, high- ux spectrum. Additionally, to penetrate a human-sized object, the design energy of the system has to be well above 40 keV. To our knowledge, little research has been done so far to investigate optimal GBI filtration at such high x-ray energies. In this paper, we study different filtration strategies and their impact on high-energy GBI. Specifically, we compare copper filtration at low peak voltage with equal-absorption, equal-imaging time K-edge filtration of spectra with higher peak voltage under clinically realistic boundary conditions. We specifically focus on a design energy of 59 keV and investigate combinations of tube current, peak voltage, and filtration that lead to equal patient absorption. Theoretical considerations suggest that the K edge of tantalum might provide a transmission pocket at around 59 keV, yielding a well-shaped spectrum. Although one can observe a slight visibility benefit when using tungsten or tantalum filtration, experimental results indicate that visibility benefits most from a low x-ray tube peak voltage.

Electrostatic focal spot correction for x-ray tubes operating in strong magnetic fields

PURPOSE A close proximity hybrid x-ray/magnetic resonance (XMR) imaging system offers several critical advantages over current XMR system installations that have large separation distances (∼5 m) between the imaging fields of view. The two imaging systems can be placed in close proximity to each other if an x-ray tube can be designed to be immune to the magnetic fringe fields outside of the MR bore. One of the major obstacles to robust x-ray tube design is correcting for the effects of the MR fringe field on the x-ray tube focal spot. Any fringe field component orthogonal to the x-ray tube electric field leads to electron drift altering the path of the electron trajectories. METHODS The method proposed in this study to correct for the electron drift utilizes an external electric field in the direction of the drift. The electric field is created using two electrodes that are positioned adjacent to the cathode. These electrodes are biased with positive and negative potential differences relative to the cathode. The design of the focusing cup assembly is constrained primarily by the strength of the MR fringe field and high voltage standoff distances between the anode, cathode, and the bias electrodes. From these constraints, a focusing cup design suitable for the close proximity XMR system geometry is derived, and a finite element model of this focusing cup geometry is simulated to demonstrate efficacy. A Monte Carlo simulation is performed to determine any effects of the modified focusing cup design on the output x-ray energy spectrum. RESULTS An orthogonal fringe field magnitude of 65 mT can be compensated for using bias voltages of +15 and -20 kV. These bias voltages are not sufficient to completely correct for larger orthogonal field magnitudes. Using active shielding coils in combination with the bias electrodes provides complete correction at an orthogonal field magnitude of 88.1 mT. Introducing small fields (<10 mT) parallel to the x-ray tube electric field in addition to the orthogonal field does not affect the electrostatic correction technique. However, rotation of the x-ray tube by 30° toward the MR bore increases the parallel magnetic field magnitude (∼72 mT). The presence of this larger parallel field along with the orthogonal field leads to incomplete correction. Monte Carlo simulations demonstrate that the mean energy of the x-ray spectrum is not noticeably affected by the electrostatic correction, but the output flux is reduced by 7.5%. CONCLUSIONS The maximum orthogonal magnetic field magnitude that can be compensated for using the proposed design is 65 mT. Larger orthogonal field magnitudes cannot be completely compensated for because a pure electrostatic approach is limited by the dielectric strength of the vacuum inside the x-ray tube insert. The electrostatic approach also suffers from limitations when there are strong magnetic fields in both the orthogonal and parallel directions because the electrons prefer to stay aligned with the parallel magnetic field. These challenging field conditions can be addressed by using a hybrid correction approach that utilizes both active shielding coils and biasing electrodes.

Assessment of a photon‐counting detector for a dual‐energy C‐arm angiographic system

Purpose: This article presents the implementation and assessment of photon‐counting dual‐energy x‐ray detector technology for angiographic C‐arm systems in interventional radiology. Methods: A photon‐counting detector was successfully integrated into a clinical C‐arm CT system. Detector performance was assessed using image uniformity metrics in both 2D projections and 3D cone‐beam computed tomography (CBCT) images. Uniform exposure fields were acquired to analyze projection images and scans of a homogeneous cylinder phantom were taken to analyze 3D reconstructions. Image uniformity was assessed over a broad range of imaging parameters. Results: Detector calibration greatly improved image uniformity, reducing image variation from 8.8% to 0.5% in an ideal scenario, but image uniformity degraded when imaging parameters varied strongly from values set at calibration: the tube voltage, low‐high energy threshhold, and tube current had the greatest impact. Material discrimination and dynamic angiography capabilities were successfully demonstrated in separate phantom and in vivo experiments. Conclusion: The uniformity results identified major factors degrading image quality. The quantitative results will guide selection of calibration points to mitigate the loss of uniformity. The unique combination of dual‐energy and fluoroscopy imaging capabilities with a flat‐panel photon‐counting detector may enable new applications in interventional radiology.

Performance Evaluation of an MR-Compatible Rotating Anode X-Ray Tube

The key technical innovation needed for close proximity hybrid x-ray/MR (XMR) imaging systems is a new rotating anode x-ray tube motor that can operate in the presence of strong magnetic fields. In order for the new motor design to be optimized between conflicting design requirements, we implemented a numerical model for evaluating the dynamics of the motor. The model predicts the amount of produced torque, rotation speed, and time to accelerate based on the Lorentz force law; the motor is accelerated by the interaction between the magnetic moments of the motor wire loops and an external magnetic field. It also includes an empirical model of bearing friction and electromagnetic force from the magnetic field. Our proposed computational model is validated by experiments using several different magnitudes of external magnetic fields, which averagely shows an agreement within 0.5 % error during acceleration. We are using this model to improve the efficiency and performance of future iterations of the x-ray tube motor.Copyright

SU‐D‐218‐03: Resonant Frequency of Rotating Anode X‐Ray Tubes

PURPOSE To evaluate a new rotating anode X-ray tube from the resonant frequency point of view for stable and safe operation, and to validate a finite element model for insight into X-ray tube rotor dynamics and vibration. METHODS The 3-dimensional FEM model of the X-ray tube motor has been developed using ANSYS and COMSOL. The resultant resonant frequency from the FEM simulation is substantiated by experiments. During deceleration of the X-ray tube, an accelerometer and a corresponding amplifier send the time domain vibration response to a spectrum analyzer which generates the power spectrum. In the frequency domain analysis, a peak signifies large vibrations at that frequency. To corroborate the FEM model, the resonant frequency of the motor assembly without the anode attached was also measured. Lastly, a rough estimate of the resonant frequency can also be observed in angular speed curves which are obtained utilizing a quadrature position sensor. RESULTS The first mode resonance is expected at 20.3 Hz from the FEM simulation. This result matches closely with the peak at 22.2 Hz in the power spectrum and the location of the abrupt decreasing acceleration (slope) in the speed curve at 22 Hz. Without the anode, the FEM simulation result of 35.1 Hz is equal to the first peak at 35.1 Hz, and the angular acceleration is suddenly reduced at 34.4 Hz. CONCLUSIONS For image-guided interventional procedures using a hybrid system, the X-ray tube should create flux at various times requiring repeatedacceleration and deceleration of the motor. Hence it is ideal that the resonant frequency is higher than operational speed, although alternatively the motor could accelerate through the resonant frequency quickly. Design improvements to modify the location of resonance of our motor assemblyare underway using the verified FEM model. NIH R01 EB007626, Richard M. Lucas Foundation.