Walter Tavares

Transfer of learning and patient outcome in simulated crisis resource management: a systematic review

PurposeSimulation-based learning is increasingly used by healthcare professionals as a safe method to learn and practice non-technical skills, such as communication and leadership, required for effective crisis resource management (CRM). This systematic review was conducted to gain a better understanding of the impact of simulation-based CRM teaching on transfer of learning to the workplace and subsequent changes in patient outcomes.SourceStudies on CRM, crisis management, crew resource management, teamwork, and simulation published up to September 2012 were searched in MEDLINE®, EMBASE™, CINAHL, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and ERIC. All studies that used simulation-based CRM teaching with outcomes measured at Kirkpatrick Level 3 (transfer of learning to the workplace) or 4 (patient outcome) were included. Studies measuring only learners’ reactions or simple learning (Kirkpatrick Level 1 or 2, respectively) were excluded. Two authors independently reviewed all identified titles and abstracts for eligibility.Principal findingsNine articles were identified as meeting the inclusion criteria. Four studies measured transfer of simulation-based CRM learning into the clinical setting (Kirkpatrick Level 3). In three of these studies, simulation-enhanced CRM training was found significantly more effective than no intervention or didactic teaching. Five studies measured patient outcomes (Kirkpatrick Level 4). Only one of these studies found that simulation-based CRM training made a clearly significant impact on patient mortality.ConclusionsBased on a small number of studies, this systematic review found that CRM skills learned at the simulation centre are transferred to clinical settings, and the acquired CRM skills may translate to improved patient outcomes, including a decrease in mortality.RésuméObjectifL’apprentissage basé sur des simulations est de plus en plus utilisé par les professionnels de santé comme méthodes sécuritaires d’apprentissage et de pratique de compétences non techniques, comme la communication et le leadership, qui sont nécessaires pour une gestion efficace des ressources en situation de crise (CRM). Cette étude systématique a été menée pour mieux comprendre l’impact de l’enseignement à partir de simulations de la CRM sur le transfert des connaissances sur le lieu de travail et les changements ultérieurs sur l’évolution des patients.SourceLes études sur la CRM, gestion de crise, gestion de ressources d’équipes, travail d’équipe et simulation, publiées jusqu’en septembre 2012 ont été recherchées dans les bases de données MEDLINE®, EMBASE™, CINAHL, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials et ERIC. Toutes les études utilisant un enseignement de la CRM à partir de simulations avec des résultats mesurés au niveau 3 de Kirkpatrick (transfert de l’apprentissage au milieu de travail) ou au niveau 4 (évolution du patient) ont été incluses. Toutes les études ne mesurant que les réactions des apprenants ou le seul apprentissage (respectivement, niveau 1 ou 2 de Kirkpatrick) ont été exclues. Deux auteurs ont revu de façon indépendante tous les titres et résumés identifiés pour évaluer leur admissibilité.Constatations principalesNeuf articles répondant aux critères d’inclusion ont été identifiés. Quatre études mesuraient le transfert d’apprentissage de la CRM à partir de simulations vers un cadre clinique (niveau 3 de Kirkpatrick). Dans trois de ces études, la formation à la CRM soutenue par des simulations s’est avérée significativement plus efficace que l’absence d’intervention ou un enseignement didactique. Cinq études mesuraient les résultats pour les patients (niveau 4 de Kirkpatrick). Une seule de ces études a trouvé que la formation à la CRM basée sur des simulations avait un impact clairement significatif sur la mortalité des patients.ConclusionsReposant sur un petit nombre d’études, cette analyse systématique a trouvé que les habiletés en matière de CRM apprises au centre de simulations sont transférées dans des cadres cliniques et que les habiletés acquises de CRM peuvent se traduire par une amélioration de l’évolution, y compris une baisse de la mortalité.

Impact of crisis resource management simulation-based training for interprofessional and interdisciplinary teams: A systematic review.

Abstract Crisis resource management (CRM) abilities are important for different healthcare providers to effectively manage critical clinical events. This study aims to review the effectiveness of simulation-based CRM training for interprofessional and interdisciplinary teams compared to other instructional methods (e.g., didactics). Interprofessional teams are composed of several professions (e.g., nurse, physician, midwife) while interdisciplinary teams are composed of several disciplines from the same profession (e.g., cardiologist, anaesthesiologist, orthopaedist). Medline, EMBASE, CINAHL, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and ERIC were searched using terms related to CRM, crisis management, crew resource management, teamwork, and simulation. Trials comparing simulation-based CRM team training versus any other methods of education were included. The educational interventions involved interprofessional or interdisciplinary healthcare teams. The initial search identified 7456 publications; 12 studies were included. Simulation-based CRM team training was associated with significant improvements in CRM skill acquisition in all but two studies when compared to didactic case-based CRM training or simulation without CRM training. Of the 12 included studies, one showed significant improvements in team behaviours in the workplace, while two studies demonstrated sustained reductions in adverse patient outcomes after a single simulation-based CRM team intervention. In conclusion, CRM simulation-based training for interprofessional and interdisciplinary teams show promise in teaching CRM in the simulator when compared to didactic case-based CRM education or simulation without CRM teaching. More research, however, is required to demonstrate transfer of learning to workplaces and potential impact on patient outcomes.

Global Rating Scale for the Assessment of Paramedic Clinical Competence

Abstract Objective. The aim of this study was to develop and critically appraise a global rating scale (GRS) for the assessment of individual paramedic clinical competence at the entry-to-practice level. Methods. The development phase of this study involved task analysis by experts, contributions from a focus group, and a modified Delphi process using a national expert panel to establish evidence of content validity. The critical appraisal phase had two raters apply the GRS, developed in the first phase, to a series of sample performances from three groups: novice paramedic students (group 1), paramedic students at the entry-to-practice level (group 2), and experienced paramedics (group 3). Using data from this process, we examined the tools reliability within each group and tested the discriminative validity hypothesis that higher scores would be associated with higher levels of training and experience. Results. The development phase resulted in a seven-dimension, seven-point adjectival GRS. The two independent blinded raters scored 81 recorded sample performances (n = 25 in group 1, n = 33 in group 2, n = 23 in group 3) using the GRS. For groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively, interrater reliability reached 0.75, 0.88, and 0.94. Intrarater reliability reached 0.94 and the internal consistency ranged from 0.53 to 0.89. Rater differences contributed 0–5.7% of the total variance. The GRS scores assigned to each group increased with level of experience, both using the overall rating (means = 2.3, 4.1, 5.0; p < 0.001) and considering each dimension separately. Applying a modified borderline group method, 54.9% of group 1, 13.4% of group 2, and 2.9% of group 3 were below the cut score. Conclusion. The results of this study provide evidence that the scores generated using this scale can be valid for the purpose of making decisions regarding paramedic clinical competence. Key words: educational measurement; clinical competence; licensure; certification; paramedics; global rating scale; rating scales

Simulation-based assessment of paramedics and performance in real clinical contexts.

Abstract Objective. The objective of this study was to seek validity evidence for simulation-based assessments (SBA) of paramedics by asking to what extent the measurements obtained in SBA of clinical competence are associated with measurements obtained in actual paramedic contexts, with real patients. Methods. This prospective observational study involved analyzing the assessment of paramedic trainees at the entry-to-practice level in both simulation- and workplace-based settings. The SBA followed an OSCE structure involving full clinical cases from initial patient contact to transport or transfer of care. The workplace-based assessment (WBA) involved rating samples of clinical performance during real clinical encounters while assigned to an emergency medical service. For each candidate, both assessments were completed during a 3-week period at the end of their training. Raters in the SBA and WBA settings used the same paramedic-specific seven-dimension global rating scale. Reliability was calculated and decision studies were completed using generalizability theory. Associations between settings (overall and by dimension) were calculated using Pearsons correlation. Results. A total of 49 paramedic trainees were assessed using both a SBA and WBA. The mean score in the SBA and WBA settings were 4.88 (SD = 0.68) and 5.39 (SD = 0.48), respectively, out of a possible 7. Reliability for the SBA and WBA settings reached 0.55 and 0.49, respectively. A decision study revealed 10 and 13 cases would be needed to reach a reliability of 0.7 for the SBA and WBA settings. Pearson correlation reached 0.37 (p = 0.01) between settings, which rose to 0.73 when controlling for imperfect reliability; five of seven dimensions (situation awareness, history gathering, patient assessment, decision making, and communication) reaching significance. Two dimensions (resource utilization and procedural skills) did not reach significance. Conclusion. For five of the seven dimensions believed to represent the construct of paramedic clinical performance, scores obtained in the SBA were associated with scores obtained in real clinical contexts with real patients. As SBAs are often used to infer clinical competence and predict future clinical performance, this study contributes validity evidence to support these claims as long as the importance of sampling performance broadly and extensively is appreciated and implemented.

The Association Between Posttraumatic Stress, Coping, and Acute Stress Responses in Paramedics

This study examined the association between symptoms of posttraumatic stress, coping styles, and subjective and biological responses in paramedics confronted with a simulated high-acuity event. Twenty-two advanced-care paramedics participated in a high-stress-simulated clinical scenario using a computerized human patient simulator. The Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations and the Impact of Event Scale–Revised were administered prior to participation in the scenario to ascertain preexisting coping styles and posttraumatic stress. Subjective anxiety, as measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and acute physiological stress as measured by salivary cortisol levels, were assessed at baseline, and in response to the scenario. Results revealed that posttraumatic stress was not associated with biological or subjective indicators of stress. This suggests that high levels of posttraumatic stress among paramedics do not place them at increased risk of distress during high-stress clinical situations. Acut...

Prehospital Identification of Underlying Coronary Artery Disease by Community Paramedics

Abstract There is a lack of definitive evidence that preventative, in-home medical care provided by highly trained community paramedics reduces acute health care utilization and improves the overall well-being of patients suffering from chronic diseases. The Expanding Paramedicine in the Community (EPIC) trial is a randomized controlled trial designed to investigate the use of community paramedics in chronic disease management (ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT02034045). This case of a patient randomized to the intervention arm of the EPIC study demonstrates how the added layer of frequent patient contact by community paramedics and real-time electronic medical record (EMR) correspondence between the paramedics, physicians and other involved practitioners prevented possible life-threatening complications. The visiting community paramedic deduced the need for an electrocardiogram, which prompted the primary care physician to order a stress test revealing abnormalities and thus a coronary artery bypass graft was performed without emergency procedures, unnecessary financial expenditure or further health degradation such as a myocardial infarction.

Building Capacity in Healthcare by Re-examining Clinical Services in Paramedicine

ABSTRACT Objectives: Emergency departments (ED) continue to be overburdened, leading to crowding and elevated risk of negative clinical outcomes. Extending clinical services to paramedics may support efforts to improve ED burdens by promoting health care access and capacity during times of patient crisis. The objective of this study was to identify the clinical course and most responsible diagnosis of patients transported by paramedic services to local EDs to then evaluate impact of various augmented 9-1-1/paramedic clinical service models on the need for additional ED services. Methods: A retrospective cohort and model-simulation based study. We retrieved clinical data from hospital records for a random selection of 3,000 patients who engaged 9-1-1/paramedic services and were transported to a regional ED to identify their clinical course (interventions, diagnostics) disposition and most responsible admitting/discharge diagnosis. We used this data to establish, simulate and test numerous paramedic service models on the need for ED services. Results: A random selection of 3,000 patients was reviewed across 3 hospitals. The majority were female (57.2%) with a mean age of 65 (SD = 21.3). The majority (n = 1954; 65.1%) were discharged directly from ED of which 3.6% (n = 108) received no intervention or diagnostic, 20.4% (n = 611) received only a diagnostic, 4.8% (n = 143) received only an intervention and 36.4% (n = 1092) received both an intervention and diagnostic. The proportion of nonadmitted patients rose to 82.2% and 77.2% when considering lower priority patients and age greater than 65, respectively. Patient types were identified based on frequency and association with discharge directly from ED. Twelve simulated augmented paramedic clinical service models are reported with estimated gains in the number of patients who may no longer require ED services ranging from 7.5% (n = 146) to 35.4% (n = 691). Conclusions: This study suggests a reduction in need for ED services may be achieved through innovative models of paramedic services at the time of crisis. Identifying and confirming patient types/events to target and clinical services to include in the model requires ongoing investigation. Future research will be needed to evaluate the accuracy and impact of the models presented. Keywords: Paramedic; EMS; Community Paramedicine; Healthcare Service Delivery; ED Crowding; primary care

“Please. Don’t. Die.”: A Grounded Theory Study of Bystander Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

Background: Bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an important determinant of survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA), yet rates of bystander CPR are highly variable. In an effort to promote bystander CPR, the procedure has been streamlined, and ultrashort teaching modalities have been introduced. CPR has been increasingly reconceptualized as simple, safe, and easy to perform; however, current methods of CPR instruction may not adequately prepare lay rescuers for the various logistical, conceptual, and emotional challenges of resuscitating a victim of cardiac arrest. Methods and Results: We adopted a constructivist grounded theory methodology to qualitatively explore bystander CPR and invited lay rescuers who had recently (ie, within 1 week) intervened in an OHCA to participate in semistructured interviews and focus groups. We used constant comparative analysis until theoretical saturation to derive a midrange explanatory theory of bystander CPR. We constructed a 3-stage theoretical model describing a common experiential process for lay rescuer intervention in OHCA: Being called to act is disturbing, causing panic, shock, and disbelief that must ultimately be overcome. Taking action to save the victim is complicated by several misconceptions about cardiac arrest, where victims are mistakenly believed to be choking, and agonal respirations are misinterpreted to mean the victim is alive. Making sense of the experience is challenging, at least in the short term, where lay rescuers have to contend with self-doubt, unanswered questions, and uncomfortable emotional reactions to a traumatic event. Conclusions: Our study suggests that current CPR training programs may not adequately prepare lay rescuers for the reality of an OHCA and identifies several key knowledge gaps that should be addressed. The long-term psychological consequences of bystander intervention in OHCA remain poorly understood and warrant further study.

Learning in professionally 'distant' contexts: opportunities and challenges

The changing nature of healthcare education and delivery is such that clinicians will increasingly find themselves practicing in contexts that are physically and/or conceptually different from the settings in which they were trained, a practice that conflicts on some level with socio-cultural theories of learning that emphasize learning in context. Our objective was therefore to explore learning in ‘professionally distant’ contexts. Using paramedic education, where portions of training occur in hospital settings despite preparing students for out-of-hospital work, fifty-three informants (11 current students, 13 recent graduates, 16 paramedic program faculty and 13 program coordinators/directors) took part in five semi-structured focus groups. Participants reflected on the value and role of hospital placements in paramedic student development. All sessions were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and analyzed using inductive thematic analysis. In this context six educational advantages and two challenges were identified when using professionally distant learning environments. Learning could still be associated with features such as (a) engagement through “authenticity”, (b) technical skill development, (c) interpersonal skill development, (d) psychological resilience, (e) healthcare system knowledge and (f) scaffolding. Variability in learning and misalignment with learning goals were identified as potential threats. Learning environments that are professionally distant from eventual practice settings may prove meaningful by providing learners with foundational and preparatory learning experiences for competencies that may be transferrable. This suggests that where learning occurs may be less important than how the experience contributes to the learner’s development and the meaning or value he/she derives from it.

On the Assessment of Paramedic Competence: A Narrative Review with Practice Implications.

INTRODUCTION Paramedicine is experiencing significant growth in scope of practice, autonomy, and role in the health care system. Despite clinical governance models, the degree to which paramedicine ultimately can be safe and effective will be dependent on the individuals the profession deems suited to practice. This creates an imperative for those responsible for these decisions to ensure that assessments of paramedic competence are indeed accurate, trustworthy, and defensible. PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to explore and synthesize relevant theoretical foundations and literature informing best practices in performance-based assessment (PBA) of competence, as it might be applied to paramedicine, for design or evaluation of assessment programs. METHODS A narrative review methodology was applied to focus intentionally, but broadly, on purpose relevant, theoretically derived research that could inform assessment protocols in paramedicine. Primary and secondary studies from a number of health professions that contributed to and informed best practices related to the assessment of paramedic clinical competence were included and synthesized. RESULTS Multiple conceptual frameworks, psychometric requirements, and emerging lines of research are forwarded. Seventeen practice implications are derived to promote understanding as well as best practices and evaluation criteria for educators, employers, and/or licensing/certifying bodies when considering the assessment of paramedic competence. CONCLUSIONS The assessment of paramedic competence is a complex process requiring an understanding, appreciation for, and integration of conceptual and psychometric principles. The field of PBA is advancing rapidly with numerous opportunities for research.