Wayne A. Babchuk

Sex differences in the recognition of infant facial expressions of emotion: The primary caretaker hypothesis

Abstract Although much research has been devoted to studying sex differences in functioning (e.g., Maccoby and Jacklin 1974), most efforts have been directed toward documenting or elucidating the proximate causes of sex differences. Few attempts have been made, however, to explain the ultimate causes of these differences or the selective pressures that have led to the development of psychological differences between males and females [for exceptions see Symons (1979) and Daly and Wilson (1983)]. Toward this end of blending psychology with evolutionary theory we develop what we call the “primary caretaker hypothesis,” which predicts that the sex that through evolutionary time has dominated infant caretaking will differentially exhibit skills that are important in caretaking (e.g., the ability to rapidly recognize infant emotional expressions). Evidence is advanced to show that females dominate childcare in nonhuman primates and humans and that a high level of care of infants is crucial, given universally high infant mortality rates throughout our evolutionary history and the number of potential hazards impairing infant development. The prompt and accurate recognition of infant emotional cues—especially in the face—is an important component of caretaking practices, and thus selective pressures should result in greater proficiency in this ability in the sex that caretakes most. An experimental procedure is described where informants were tested in their speed and accuracy of identifying infant facial expressions of emotion. A statistical analysis of the results revealed that females were significantly more accurate and rapid than males in their discrimination of facial expressions and that previous experience in childcare had no effect on this sex difference. Follow-up research concerning the “primary caretaker hypothesis” is proposed.

Toward a sociology of participation in adult education programmes

Membership in voluntary associations and participation in adult education programmes have long been recognized by researchers in the fields of adult education and sociology as closely related forms of participatory behaviour. This inquiry realizes the potential of this relationship for the study of participation in adult education programmes through the reformulation of a sociological construct called personal influence. It is argued that personal influence in the form of face‐to‐face contact with primary and secondary influentials is at the heart of recruitment strategies targeted at adults, is often an important component of an adults decision to participate in formally organized learning activities, and may play a critical role in retention and instruction of the adult learner. Secondary analysis of research on voluntary associations, social movement organizations, and adult education programmes, together with data on two populations of adult learners from ar ongoing large scale study of Adult Basic E...

Settler colonialism, conflicts, and genocide: interactions between hunter-gatherers and settlers in Kenya, and Zimbabwe and northern Botswana

Violent and non-violent conflicts and interactions between hunter-gatherers and settlers took place in a number of areas in eastern and southern Africa during the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Foragers had to cope with the incursions of settlers in their territories, which resulted in significant competition over land and natural resources. This paper examines two such cases: (1) Kenya, looking specifically at conflicts between settlers and local foraging peoples (e.g. Ogiek, ‘Dorobo’, Mukogodo, Boni, Waata, Dahalo, and Aweer, among others) and (2) western Zimbabwe and north eastern Botswana (Tshwa San) and the Zambezi Valley (Doma) of Zimbabwe. In these cases, lands populated by indigenous hunter-gatherers were taken over by settlers, ranchers, state institutions, and private companies. Conflicts between the groups occurred, although there was variation in the degree to which relationships were characterized by violence. Settler colonialism had diverse impacts. Not all of the situations involved deadly conflict; some also involved coercion, collaboration, and co-option. In some instances, settlers and immigrant pastoralists and agriculturalists negotiated with hunter-gatherers to enable them to gain entry to their areas. Some of the questions addressed in this paper include: (1) whether the interactions between hunter-gatherers and settlers can be characterized as cases of either physical or cultural genocide, neither, or both; (2) the role of the state in favoring certain groups (e.g. settlers) at the expense of others; (3) the effectiveness of strategies employed by hunter-gatherers to resist or go along with the agendas of settlers, ranchers, and companies; and (4) the importance of reconciling competing agendas of these different groups.

THE POLITICS AND ECONOMICS OF COMMUNITY-BASED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN /XAI/XAI, NGAMILAND, BOTSWANA

This study examined assumptions surrounding the issue of community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) projects in southern Africa. Data were drawn from the village of /Xai/Xai in Ngamiland (North West District), Botswana, a multi-ethnic community consisting mainly of Ju/’hoansi San and Herero located on the Botswana-Namibia border in the northern Kalahari Desert. The /Xai /Xai people formed the /Xai/Xai (Cgae Cgae) Tlhabololo Trust in 1997, the first of its kind in Botswana. An examination of the /Xai/Xai Trust’s activities and implementation over time reveals some of the complexities of CBNRM projects, including those relating to management, transparency, benefit distribution, equity, and the impacts of decision-making on local people. Gender, ethnicity, and class issues are examined along with the problem of elite capture of resources, the tendency of the state to favor private companies, the challenges of conflicting government policies, and power relations at the local, district, and national levels. The analysis shows that if CBNRM projects are to be successful, then community-based institutions and their members as well as district councils and the central government must be able to come to agreements about benefit distribution, ways to resolve conflicts, provision of investment in livelihood-related activities, and security of tenure over land and resources.