Wendy May Hill

Comparing hiking, mountain biking and horse riding impacts on vegetation and soils in Australia and the United States of America

Hiking, horse riding and mountain biking are popular in protected areas in Australia and the United States of America. To help inform the often contentious deliberations about use of protected areas for these three types of activities, we review recreation ecology research in both countries. Many impacts on vegetation, soils and trails are similar for the three activities, although there can be differences in severity. Impacts include damage to existing trails, soil erosion, compaction and nutrification, changes in hydrology, trail widening, exposure of roots, rocks and bedrock. There can be damage to plants including reduction in vegetation height and biomass, changes in species composition, creation of informal trails and the spread of weeds and plant pathogens. Due to differences in evolutionary history, impacts on soil and vegetation can be greater in Australia than in the USA. There are specific social and biophysical impacts of horses such as those associated with manure and urine, grazing and the construction and use of tethering yards and fences. Mountain bike specific impacts include soil and vegetation damage from skidding and the construction of unauthorised trails, jumps, bridges and other trail technical features. There are gaps in the current research that should be filled by additional research: (1) on horse and mountain bike impacts to complement those on hiking. The methods used need to reflect patterns of actual usage and be suitable for robust statistical analysis; (2) that directly compares types and severity of impacts among activities; and (3) on the potential for each activity to contribute to the spread of weeds and plant pathogens. Additional research will assist managers and users of protected areas in understanding the relative impacts of these activities, and better ways to manage them. It may not quell the debates among users, managers and conservationists, but it will help put it on a more scientific footing.

Roadside Weeds of the Snowy Mountains, Australia

Abstract Weeds are an increasing threat to the biodiversity of mountain regions worldwide, including in Australia. We reviewed 18 surveys of 401 sites conducted between 1986 and 2004 and examined the distribution and characteristics of common weeds on roadsides in the Snowy Mountains, Australia, to determine the range of natural habitats these weeds are found in, whether they are limited to disturbed sites, whether they are also common in other mountain regions including the Australian Alps, and whether they have invasive traits. There are only 8 common weeds in the Snowy Mountains: Acetosella vulgaris (also known as Rumex acetosella), Hypochaeris radicata, Trifolium repens, Taraxacum officinale, Agrostis capillaris, Dactylis glomerata, Anthoxanthum odoratum, and Achillea millefolium. They occur in areas disturbed by humans, such as along roadsides and around buildings and tracks, from the low-altitude montane zone to the high-altitude high subalpine/alpine zone. They also occur to varying extents in undisturbed native vegetation, reflecting their invasive capacity. These species are all perennial, with high vegetative and/or sexual reproduction, native to Europe, and are found growing on roadsides and in native vegetation in mountains in Europe, North America, South America, and New Zealand. Therefore, it appears that these plants are the usual suspects: common mountain weeds, which may be found worldwide at high altitude.

Reproductive ecology and the effect of altitude on sex ratios in the dioecious herb Aciphylla simplicifolia (Apiaceae)

The reproductive ecology of the dioecious herb Aciphylla simplicifolia (F.Muell.) Benth. (Apiaceae, Mountain Aciphylla) was examined in Kosciuszko National Park. Differences in floral display and flowering phenology between male and female plants were consistent with predictions based on theories concerning sexual dimorphism in dioecious plants. For example, male plants had larger floral displays than females at the alpine sites sampled. Male inflorescences had four times as many flowers as females and more than three times the area of floral display. In addition to differences in floral display, there was a sex-specific pattern in flowering phenology at six alpine sites. At these sites, there were more male inflorescences with buds and flowers and more female inflorescences finished flowering than would be expected if gender did not affect flowering phenology. To determine whether increasingly severe conditions associated with higher-altitude sites were associated with male-biased sex ratios, the number of male and female plants were compared for 20 sites over a 600-m altitudinal range from montane to alpine (total 4274 plants). As altitude increased and as the vegetation zone changed from subalpine to alpine, the sex ratio became increasingly male-biased, with sites in the alpine ranging from 1.45 males per female to 8.53 males per female. Sexual dimorphism in floral display, flowering phenology and sex ratios was consistent with what would be predicted for plants with sex-specific differences in resource allocation.

Linking Visitor Impact Research to Visitor Impact Monitoring in Protected Areas

Growing demand for natural area recreation and tourism has seen a rise in visitor numbers to protected areas. In response, there has been an increase in research into visitor impacts. There has also been increased interest in establishing and maintaining visitor impacts monitoring programmes. Here, we evaluate the relationship between recreation ecology research and visitor impact monitoring and discuss how the aims and scope of these two activities often differ. We highlight that recreation ecologists design observational and experimental treatments to test causal relationships between a particular load or stress and environmental indicator(s) of interest. Some of these studies identify thresholds of concern, with the intention that managers can use thresholds of indicator response in their monitoring programmes. However, agencies interested in monitoring visitor impacts often do not need to establish causality, but rather detect change in the indicator of interest. Therefore, simplified protocols which can be easily conducted by agency staff in the field at regular and operationally appropriate time intervals can be used. We present a visitor assessment flow chart that demonstrates how research and monitoring objectives can interact and contribute to the cost-effective management of heavily visited sites within protected areas.

Indirect Impacts of Nature Based Tourism and Recreation: The Association Between Infrastructure and the Diversity of Exotic Plants in Kosciuszko National Park, Australia

Tourism and recreation in protected areas results in a range of indirect impacts on the environment, including facilitating the spread of weeds. This research note examines the associations between tourism infrastructure and the diversity and frequency of exotic plants in a large and popular protected area in south-eastern Australia, Kosciuszko National Park. Of the 156 exotic taxa recorded in 18 vegetation surveys between 1986 and 2004, 152 were associated with tourism infrastructure; 64 taxa on road verges, 50 in ski resort areas, and a further 66 exclusively in the ski resort gardens. As many exotics become invasive environmental weeds, this study highlights the need to limit both the introduction of exotic propagules and the disturbance to natural vegetation during the construction, maintenance and use of tourism infrastructure in protected areas. If damage to vegetation has occurred, effective rehabilitation programmes are required.

Ecological change as a result of winter tourism: snow manipulation in the Australian Alps.

This study examines potential direct and indirect effects of snow manipulation (e.g. slope grooming, snow grooming, snow making, snow harvesting and snow fences) on vegetation in the Australian Alps. The extent of snow manipulation has increased substantially over the last decade, in order to maintain the economic viability of ski resorts. In Australia, little research has been done on the resulting environmental impacts. This is despite the high conservation value of the Australian Alps, with resorts located either in or adjacent to national parks. Overseas research indicates that snow manipulation results in a cascade of changes that can negatively affect native flora. Slope grooming can involve extensive modification of the environment, including removal of native vegetation and reformation of slope topography, and this results in changes to hydro-logical patterns. Snow grooming not only physically damages plants but also compacts the snow, increasing its density and reducing porosity and permeability. This limits the ability of the snow pack to slow water runoff, thus increasing the risk of erosion, and can retard spring snowmelt. Snow compaction affects plants by increasing the risk of physical damage from freezing. However, the range of indirect impacts on plants can be extensive, and includes impacts due to lower soil temperatures, greater depth of soil freezing, depleted soil nutrients and higher soil pH. Biological effects of snow compaction and other snow manipulation techniques have been studied less, but include changes in soil biota, herbivory, animal activity, predation, insect activity, seed dispersal and the composition of plant communities. This study highlights the need for research into environmental impacts of tourism, to ensure that winter ski tourism in Australia is not just economically but also environmentally sustainable.

Developing ecological indicators of visitor use of protected areas : a new integrated framework from Australia

Sustainable tourism is considered an appropriate use of many Australian protected areas. However, such use needs to be managed, and the effectiveness of management needs to be assessed as over-use can adversely affect the natural environment. Monitoring and management of visitor impacts requires integration into evaluation frameworks to enable more efficient reporting but within Australia this appears to be poorly developed. We have developed a framework that integrates visitor impact monitoring and evaluation within adaptive management cycles to improve management responses. The framework uses existing management processes, where possible, for focusing monitoring efforts and selecting appropriate ecological indicators. This focus is achieved through a process of prioritisation of natural assets used by visitors, or those likely to be impacted by visitor use. The framework follows a sequential, adaptive cycle of identifying natural asset values, their vulnerability, and use by visitors to derive appropriate indicators for monitoring. The indicators selected using the framework are linked to existing evaluation frameworks to provide baseline information for core protected area evaluation across a variety of spatial scales. We outline the functionality of the framework using a six step process and expand on the ability of the framework to be applied in other protected area management situations.

The ‘hollow-middle’: why positive community perceptions do not translate into pro-conservation behaviour in El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve, Mexico

Participation of local communities in conservation is essential for long-term sustainability of biosphere reserves. Yet, questions remain about conditions under which participation is successful. Positive perceptions about a protected area, which may be associated with economic benefits or improved social capital, can promote pro-conservation behaviour, yet relationships are unclear. To assess this, we investigated perception–behaviour relationships in El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve, Mexico – a socially and ecologically diverse desert region. Unsustainable and illegal resource use in the reserve has placed ecosystems under pressure. A survey of 367 people in seven rural communities and informal interviews with stakeholders suggested there was strong support for reserve designation among respondents. While conservation was recognized as a primary purpose for designation, respondents perceived the reserve was threatened by illegal and unsustainable activities. Concomitantly, respondents desired effective regulatory management and socio-economic development. Positive perceptions did not translate into pro-conservation behaviour. Respondents were largely unaware of, and had rarely participated in, conservation initiatives. Reasons appear to be related to the limited capacity of government agencies and resource management institutions. The latter require continual external support to develop stronger leadership, management skills and more equitable governance, required to bring local actors into conservation.